APW_Terms_Unit 2

Rome: From Republic to Empire

87BCE: invasion and subsequent occupation of Rome led by Marius until his death. Sulla took over, labeling state enemies and encouraging slaughter; civil war and a reign of terror ensued, which lasted five years and resulted in over 10,000 deaths. Sulla died in 78BCE and left as his legacy a conservative legislature that weakened the power of the lower classes and returned power to the wealthy. Latifundia - land conquered by the Roman Empire, controlled by wealthy elites, and organized into plantations - increased tensions between rich and poor.

Polis

A Greek word meaning a city, city-state, and a body of citizens. Attracted large populations because it offered safety; became center of trade. Levied taxes; took farming surplus from countryside to feed inhabitants. Political models could include, but were not limited to, monarchies and tyrannical rulers.

Sparta

A city-state in classical Greece - conquered neighbors and forced them into servitude. Helots - bound to land; role - to provide food; outnumbered Spartans ten to one. Spartans were characteristically simple, frugal, and austere. Known for military talent; from age seven all boys lived in barracks and trained; served in military at age 20. Women exercised regularly - physical fitness was associated with bearing strong children.

Athens

A city-state in classical Greece whose government was based on democratic principles. However, only free adult males could participate in government. Debt forced many poor farmers into slavery; gap between rich and poor widened. Aristocrat Solon became a great mediator between the classes: aristocrats kept land, canceled debts, and forbade debt slavery for poor. Pericles encouraged democracy, public works, and the development of science, philosophy, poetry, and the arts. World's first democracy (women and slaves, however, could not vote - only approximately 40,000 of the 450,000 inhabitants of the polis were eligible to vote); had a great impact on the development of later governments.

Mauryan Dynasty

A classical Indian dynasty that developed out of political void created by the failed invasion of Persian emperor Darius, it subsequently controlled by the kingdom of Magadha for two centuries. Flourished during the late 320s BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya took over and laid the foundations for a centralized, unified government that included all of India from the Indus to the Ganges rivers. Ashoka (ruled 268-232BCE) conquered the kingdom of Kalinga through bloody battles, uniting the entire subcontinent; better known as a governor than as a conqueror. Ashoka built irrigation systems for agriculture, constucted roads for trade and travel, supported Buddhism, and encouraged religious tolerance. Ashoka's death led to decline of empire.

Magnetic Compass

A navigational tool that determines direction; the magnetic compass does this by using the magnetic poles of Earth. Its origin is hard to date, but it is certainly a Chinese invention that was in wide use during the time of the Song dynasty (960CE - 1279CE). The Chinese used a magnetic needle floating in water. Knowledge of the compass spread from China across the Indian Ocean; used by Arab and Persian sailors in the 100s (CE). Europeans began using the magnetic compass in the 1100s (CE). This technology played a key role in European exploration.

Zoroastrianism

A religion based on the teachings of Zarathustra, who left his family at the age of 20 in search of wisdom; after ten years he proclaimed that visions revealed to him the supreme god, who he called Ahura Mazda (wise lord); this supreme being had chose him to be his prophet and spread his message. Major belief: The material world is a blessing; teaching of Mazda allow enjoyment of everything the world has to offer (wealth, sexual pleasure, and social status) - but in moderation. Influence of Zoroastrian religion can be found in Judaism and Christianity; for example, the concept of good and evil and the concept of Heaven and Hell as reward or punishment.

Sternpost Rudder

A rudder is used to steer a ship. The Chinese mounted rudders on the sterns of their boats beginning in the 1st century CE. The use of the sternpost rudder spread across the Indian Ocean. Europeans began to use the sternpost rudder in the 1100s (CE). This technology played a key role in European exploration.

Lateen Sail

A triangular-shaped sail that improved upon the traditional square sail. By the 500s CE, the lateen sails had extensively replaced the square sail. The sail was easily maneuverable due to its ability to "catch" wind on the sides, as well as from behind. It can be traced to the early Roman Empire and was used in the Mediterranean Sea. Knowledge of the sail to SE Asia and India in the 100s CE; the sail was used in Indian Ocean basin trade. This technology played a key role in European exploration.

Buddhism

About 537BCE Siddartha Gautama, a Hindu of the Kshatriyan caste, left his family to live as a holy man. After meditating for 49 days under the bo tree, said he understood the problem of suffering and how to eliminate it; became the Buddha ("the enlightened one"). Dharma is the principle or law that orders the universe according to the teachings and methods of the Buddha. Four Noble Truths: nothing is permanent; all life involves suffering; desire causes suffering - eliminate desire and you will eliminate suffering. Follow the Eightfold Path, the four Noble Truth: right belief, right resolve, right speech, right behavior, right occupation, right effort, right contemplation, right meditation. Goal: to achieve Nirvana (a state of spiritual independence). Appealed to lower castes because it de-emphasized class distinctions. Cultural diffusion responsible for spread of ideas - in Japan developed in Zen Buddhism; in China, Mahayan Buddhism; in northern India, Theravedic Buddhism.

Economics of Classical Persia

Agriculture was the foundation of the Persian economy - surpluses were necessary to support military forces, government administrators, and residents in the cities. Empire controlled fertile land in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, and northern India. Imperial court consumed almost 800,000 liters of grain per year, in addition to vegetables, fruits, meat, poultry, fish, oil, beer, wine, and textiles. Persian Royal Road and sea routes through the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Arabian Sea assisted in trade throughout the empire. Markets in large cities, such as Babylon, also housed banks and companies that invested capital in commercial ventures.

Mayan Culture

Built up large ceremonial centers, which included pyramids, palaces, and temples; large centers included Palenque, Chichen Itza, and Tikal, the latter with a population of approximately 40,000 people and the Temple of the Jaguar. Approximately 800CE people abandoned their cities, possibly as a result of civil war, internal divisions, or natural disasters.

Gupta Dynasty

Chandra Gupta laid foundations for empire by making alliances with powerful families in the Ganges; he conquered many, while others chose to form tributary alliances with the Guptas. Government, both policy and administration, was left to the locals; Gupta did not impose uniform laws; brought stability and prosperity. Decline caused by invasions by the White Huns (nomadic people from central Asia) - dynasty continued in name only.

Teotihuacan

City built in central Mexico because of the abundant supplies of fish; developed agriculture by 500BCE, rapid expansion after 200 BCE. At height (approximately 400-600CE) 200,000 people. Two most important monuments: colossal pyramids of the sun and the moon. Artwork suggests a theocratic government - priests were crucial to the survival of society - kept calendar and scheduled planting and harvesting.

Early Han Dynasty

Claming the "madate of heaven," Liu Bang centralized ruled using persistence and methodical planning; started longest lasting Chinese dynasty - the Han (206BCE - 220CE). Emperors ruled from Chang'an, with its imperial palace, busy markets, and parks. Han Wudi, the "martial emperor," ruled the Han from 141 to 87BCE with two goals: to centralize governmental power and to expand the empire. He used Legalist principles as the guidelines for his government. Wudi appointed imperial officers in provinces to enforce laws and levy taxes on agriculture, trade, and craft industries. Demand for Chinese silk in India, Persia, Mesopotamia, and the Roman Empire led to development of trade routes (the silk roads). Wudi exercised tremedous government control over the building of roads and canals to increase trade and communication. Government also controlled production of essential goods: iron, salt, and liquor.

Daoism

Daoism came up with an alternative solution to end the Warring States period - contrary to Confucian beliefs, Daoists reflected on natural principles that govern the world to achieve harmony with nature. Central concept: dao ("the way" or "the way of nature" or "the way of the cosmos") like water, it is soft yet can also erode the strongest rocks. Humans should stop trying to achieve personal goals and live very simply in order to achieve harmony with nature. Wuwei: Important moral trait whereby people remove themselves from worldly affairs - translates in political affairs as "less is more." Ideal societal structure would consist of tiny, self-sufficient communities.

Fall of Han Dynasty

Division within the ruling elite limited the effectiveness of the government, leading to its collapse. Issues: land distribution, private armies, unrest, economic decline. Rise in epidemics in late 2nd and early 3rd centuries led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion (rebels' yellow turbans represented their peasant status and their ties to the earth). Dynasty formally ended in 220CE.

Expansion of Roman Empire

During the republic, the empire included Italy, Greece, Syria, Gaul, most of the Iberian Peninsula, and outposts in North Africa and Anatolia; Augustus added most of SE Asia; at its height, the empire included Britain and all of the land surrounding the northern and southern coast of the Mediterranean from Iberia to Mesopotamia. As Roman soldiers, diplomats, governors, and merchants settled throughout the empire, Roman culture spread, encouraging the development of local politics and economies; cities such as Paris, Lyons, Colongne, Mainz, London, Toledo, and Segovia sprang up. Augustus's rule brought a period known as the pax romana (Roman peace), which lasted for two and half centuries and allowed the empire to experience a golden age.

Early Byzantine Empire

Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity in 313CE. He then relocated the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople in the east because the eastern Mediterranean was wealthier and the move allowed him to spy on enemies in the east. With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the eastern half became known as the Byzantine Empire and included lands in Greece, the Balkans, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and NE Africa. The young empire boasted roads and communication systems. Emperors were above the law, claiming divine rights. Emperors used political power to sway public opinion regarding religious issues.

Germanic Invasions

Ended imperial Roman power in western Europe by 476CE; power later shifts to Byzantium in the east. Nomadic Germanic tribes - Visigoths, Huns (led by Attila), Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Franks - encountered little effective resistance. Controlled the western half of the Roman empire: Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and North Africa. Led to decentralized rule and to the establishment of the feudal system.

Hellenistic Philosophies (I)

Epicureans suggested that individual needs could not be met through reflection. Epicureans said pleasure is greatest good; they defined pleasure as an inner peace that could protect them from the world's pressures.

Persian Wars

Fought between Greeks and Achaemenids (500-479BCE) - led to demise of the empire; began when Ionian Greek cities revolted against their governors. Greeks believed the Persians were uncivilized. Herodotus (born 484BCE), the great source of knowledge of the history of the wars. Persian used of unlimited manpower and resources earned them the reputation as one of the greatest militaries in history. Delian League (led by Athens) formed to discourage future Persian aggression. Darius put down rebellions and reasserted Achaemenid power but ultimately lost to the Athenian army of 10,000 men at Battle of Marathon (490BCE).

Early Christianity

Generally defined as the time between the Crucifixion of Jesus (c. 30CE) and the First Council of Nicaea (325CE). Christians would not worship Roman gods. Worshipped a single God. Appealed to lower classes (urban dwellers and women). Encouraged men and women to lead faithful lives that would, in turn, lead to their salvation.

Achaemenid Administration

Government relied on a balance between central administration and locally appointed governors. Darius divided the empire into 23 satrapies - administrative and taxation districts governed by satraps - in which he regularized tax levies and standardized laws (he did not push direct rule on the subjects). To ensure local provinces did not become too powerful, each satrapy was assigned a group of military officers and tax collectors who checked the satrap's power and independence; imperial spies, trained as watchdogs for the king, conducted surprise audits. Darius built extensive roads: Perisan Royal Road (1600 miles) - from Ephesus on the Aegean to Sardis in Anatolia to Susa in Iran - facilitated trade. Organized a courier service and built a postal stations approximately every 25 to 30 miles along the Royal Road.

Trade in the Mediterranean

Grain from latifundia in North Africa, Egypt, and Sicily supported large cities in the empire and was also used for trade with Greece (for olives and vines) and with Syria and Palestine (for fruits, nuts, and wool fabrics); trade facilitated crop specialization throughout the climatically diverse empire. The sea supported trade from the ports in Syria and Palestine to Spain and North Africa. The Roman army and navy kept the seas safe for transportation of goods - Romans called the Mediterranean mare nostrum (our sea). Merchants were also responsible for promoting cultural diffusion and a sense of community throughout the empire.

Legacy of Classical Greece

Greek replaced Latin as the official language of the Byzantine Empire. Modeled after Greece's, the empire's government-organized school system offered basic reading, writing, and grammar, followed by classical Greek literature, philosophy, and science, providing an educated workforce for the bureaucracy. Byzantine scholars, like the Greeks, focused on literature, history, and philosophy; their legacy was the preservation of Greek culture. Byzantine preservation of Greek culture was transmitted back to western Europe during the Crusades.

Emperor Wudi

Han emperor who had a problem recruiting qualified people for government posts because there was no uniform system of public education. Established an imperial university to educate government officials in 124BCE Although the government was based on Legalist principles, the university focused its instruction on Confucianism out of necessity - it was the only Chinese belief system developed enough to establish a curriculum. Enrollment began at 3000 students and rose to more than 30,000 students during the later Han dynasty. Policy of imperial expansion led to invasion of northern Vietnam and Korea (which then had to pay tribute to Han China) and battles with the Xiongnu, nomads from Asia. The Han conquered everyone they challenged.

Society in Classical Persia

In the cities, free classes included priests, priestesses, artisans, craftsmen, merchants, and low-ranking civil servants. Women worked in textile production and received rations of wine, beer, and sometimes meat for their labor. Slaves were acquired through one of two sources: prisoners of war or civilians who tried to rebel against the imperial government. Either way, slave status deprived individuals of personal freedom.

Achaemenid Empire

Includes the Medes and the Persians, both people of sizable military power and equestrian skills. (alfalfa) Cyrus, an Achaemenid (reigned 558-530BCE), founded Persian imperial empire - at height, it spread from India to the borders of Egypt. Darius (reigned 521-486BCE), younger kinsmen of Cyrus, extended the empire from the Indus River in the east to the Aegean Sea in the west, from Armenia in the north to the first waterfall of the Nile River in the south. Darius was more important as an administrator than a conqueror because of the size of the empire he managed. He also established a new capital, Persepolis, which became the center of the Persian Empire.

Jainism

Indian belief system popularized by Vardhamana Mahavira ("the great hero"). Disciples referred to Mahavira as Jina ("the conqueror") and called themselves Jains. Practiced ahimsa - nonviolence to living things or their souls (belief later impacted Hinduism and Buddhism). Extrememists swept ground as they walked to avoid harming insects (souls). Not practical, but attractive - because if all living things possessed a soul, there should not be rigid social classes (belief especially popular among lower classes).

Jesus

Jewish prophet and teacher whose major teachings were proper worship of God and love for fellow man. His message "The kingdom of God is at hand" challenged Roman civic life because it did not allow for worship of Roman gods. After the Crucifixion, devotion to Jesus grew rapidly; he was called the Christ (Greek for Messiah, or "the anointed one"), and his followers were called Christians.

Justinian's Code

Justinian (reigned 527-565CE) was very important emperor during the early Byzantine Empire; his wife, Theodora, advised him on political, religious, and diplomatic issues. Great public works built, including Hagia Sophia, a cathedral that became a mosque following the Ottoman Turks' conquest of Constantinople; exemplified architecture past and present. After a systematic review of all laws of the republic, Justinian codified Roman law, keeping legal principles of ancient Rome. Published Corpus iuris civilis (Body of the Civil Law). Justinian's Code has remained an inspiration for civil law codes.

Mycenaeans

Language combined Greek and Minoan. Built impressive stone fortresses and palaces. Palaces dominated Mycenaean cities, as was the case in Minoan Crete (Palace of Knossos); hovever, their design tended to be more centripetal and indvidualistic than those of the Minoans which were more centrifugal. By 1200BCE, the great citadels possessed impressive fortifications. Most likely a king ruled over a small area from each palace. Their conflict with Troy was presented by Homer in the Iliad.

Confucius

Lived in China during the Warring States period and sought to restore order to China. A strong-willed man, he often disagreed with the Chinese government. Left province of Lu in search of a chance at promotion, traveled for ten years; returned fruitless and died five years later. An educator and a political adviser. Students recorded his teachings in the Analects, which has had a large impact on Chinese government and culture. Believed in five constant relationships - between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, and friend and friend. Each person in the relationship had a responsibility to the other; one was superior and the other inferior.

Byzantine Economy and Society

Lower Danube region was the breadbasket of the empire. Byzantine government prevented wealthy classes from seizing peasants' lands. The wealthy could buy exemptions from taxes. Craftsmen were highly respected for their handiwork in the areas of glassware, gems, jewelry (including gold and silver), and mosaics (used to decorate churches). Architectural gems - Hagia Sophia (first a church, later a mosque). Byzantine government recognized the importance of the silk industry (a trade borrowed from the Chinese) and, subsequently, closely supervised sik production and sale. Trade was very important to the empire as a direct result of its location; merchants were especially respected.

Olympics

Most famous of Pan-Hellenistic festivals. Trade between Greek poleis fostered a stronger sense of community and shared traditions (gods, langauge, and games). Different areas, including Crete, claimed they were responsible for the inception of the games, but the first written records of the games were from 776BCE. All parts of Greece sent their best athletes to compete in contests of speed, strength, skill. Events included foot races, long jump, boxing, wrestling, javelin tossing, and discus throwing; they took place every four years for more than 100 years and then disappeared. Winners received olive wreaths at the games and hero status at home.

Julius Caesar

Named himself dictator of the Roman Empire (for life, not six months as was the past precedent). Sought to build a sense of community in Rome after civil war; spent large sums of money of gladiators, huge armies, and large-scale building projects employing Roman citizens; extended Roman citizenship to outreaches of empire (Gaul); and consolidated government. Aristocratic conspirators, upset by loss of power and wealth, plotted to execute Caesar in 44BCE in an attempt to restore the republic. Thirteen years of civil conflict followed. Octavian (later called Augustus) defeated Mark Anthony and became sole ruler. He ruled as an emperor while retaining republican forms.

Olmecs

Olmecs (means "rubber people" are named after trees from the region in which they flourished. Centers of Olmec society: San Lorenzo, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes in Central America. Adequate rainfall allowed for the construction of drainage; irrigation systems led to abundant harvests. Authoritarian rule led to the creation of extensive public works projects, including altars, temples, pyramids, and tombs. Famous sculptures: gigantic human heads.

Fall of the Roman Empire

Problems: internal opposition, power struggle (26 people claimed the throne in just 50 years), generals struggled for power and died violently; empire was simply too large, epidemics. Diocletian divided the empire into two districts: eastern (Anatolia, Syria, Egypt, and Greece) and western (Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and North Africa). Germans, migrating from the north, attacked the western half; especially powerful were the Visigoths. Hun invasions, led by Attila, pressured other Germanic tribes to invade: Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Franks. In 476CE, a German general defeated the last Roman emperor.

Legalism

One of the major philosophies that emerged from the Hundred Schools of Thought during the Warring States period. Based on the goal of expanding and strengthening the state at all costs - it is described as ruthless and efficient. Strict laws with harsh punishments lessen the number and severity of crimes. Notable people: Shang Yang (contributor to The Book of Lord Shang) and Han Feizi. Government strength lies in its agriculture and military - therefore, these two areas demand the highest number of recruits; government should discourage other career paths (merchants, educators, poets, philosophers). Community has a collective responsibility for the law - people should watch each other closely. Used by the Qin dynasty, led by Shi Huangdi, to end Warring States period.

Confucianism

One of the major philosophies that emerged from the Hundred Schools of Thought, it attempts to create social order through loyalty and respect. Does NOT address philosophical or religious questions or the structure of the state. Just wanted to end the Warring States period by finding a balance. The best way to promote good government is to hire people who are well-educated and conscientious - focused on the formation of Junzi ("superior individuals"); Junzi looks at public affairs from many different angles with unclouded judgment and, thereby, would be able to bring order and stability to society. According to Confucius, Junzi possessed personal qualities such as ren, li, and xiao. Ren - courteousness, respectfulness, diligence, loyalty; li - a sense of propriety, traditionally appropriate behavior; and xiao - filial piety, respect by children for parents and other elders. Learning was important, but Confucius also stressed the importance of moral integrity and fair judgement.

Greek Philosophy - Plato & Aristotle

Plato believed that everything was based on ideal forms or ideas. In reality, definitions were not absolute because virtue, honesty, courage, truth, and beauty all meant different things in different situations. Had an impact on the development of the Republic of Rome. Aristotle, a disciple of Plato (teacher of Aristotle), rejected the theory of forms and ideas; he believed people could depend on their senses and reason to answer the mysteries of the world. Taught Alexander the Great, a Macedon.

Roman Republic

Republic - a form of a government whose head of state is usually a president. In 509BCE, an aristocratic republic replaced the Roman monarchy; bulit a Roman forum, a political and civic center housing temples and public buildings for government business. A republican constitution gave executive (civil and military) duties and power to two consuls elected for one-year terms by an assembly dominated by the aristocracy (patricians); a senate dominated the decision-making process. Tension developed as interests of the lower class (plebeians) were not represented. This led to the development of tribunes (consisting of officials elected by plebeians), which had the right to intervene in all political affairs and veto unjust laws. During times of civil or military crisis, a dictator was appointed with absolute power for a six-month term to restore peace and stability - elongating the viability of the republic.

Roman Roads

Roman engineers developed an intricate process for building roads - they prepared a deep bed, edged roads with curbs, provided for drainage, and topped roads with large flat paving stones. Main roads were 20 to 26 feet wide - allowing for two-way traffic; narrow roads through mountains were on average 6 to 10 feet wide to enable trade, travel, and military passage. Milestones were placed along the road to facilitate the imperial postal system. Linked all parts of the empire: one highway stretched over 1,554 miles and connected the Black Sea to the North Sea; another stretched over 2,983 miles and ran parallel to the coast of North Africa, with many run-offs to transport supplies, goods, and soldiers farther into Africa. Linked with the Silk Road to create an intricate trade network, Roman roads connected western Europe with the Far East.

Roman Law

Roman law was first recorded c. 450BCE The Twelve Tables were meant to provide a standardized system of law throughout the early empire. Jurists worked together to standardize interpretations of the laws and develop a definition of justice. Established basic rights of defendants: They were innocent until proven guilty and could challenge their accusers in court. Power ultimately rested in the hands of the judge, who had the authority to set aside laws deemed to be unfair.

Byzantium and Russia

Russia created several trading centers, including Kiev along the Dnieper River. In 989CE, Prince Vladimir of Kiev converted to Orthodox Christianity as a result of his exposure to Byzantium; his subjects followed. Other Byzantine influences included the Cyrillic alphabet, writing, codified laws, and art and architecture (for example, onion domes). After Constantinople fell, Russia named Moscow the world's third Rome - insinuating that they had inherited the imperial power, as the Byzantines had inherited it from the Romans. Center of Orthodox Christianity shifts northward from Constantinople to Moscow.

Dhows

Sailing vessels with lateen sails. Lateen sails were used on ships and were most often made of palm leaves or cotton. Origin is hard to date, but records of their construction exist in the Roman Empire. These boats were used extensively by Arab sailors in the Arabian Sea and later, during the post-classical period, in the Indian Ocean by Indian, Arab, and Persian sailors; helped spread Islam. They functioned as both cargo and passenger ships and were constructed of sewn planks.

Shi Huangdi

Self-proclaimed "first emperor" of China - reigned fourteen years; established centralized rule through large-scale political organization. Central bureaucracy - run from capital at Xianyang - was divided into administrative provinces and districts, each headed by an officer appointed by the emperor. To centralize power, disarmed local military forces; built roads to enhance and expedite communication and movement of armies; standardized laws, currencies, weights and measures, and Chinese script; and built defensive walls, including linking sections of the Great Wall. Executed anyone who criticized his regime - burned 460 Confucian scholars alive for their critical comments. Forced millions of laborers to work on public works projects, including palaces, roads, bridges, irrigation systems, defensive walls, and a tomb for himself.

Later Han Dynasty

Separated from the former Han, as a result of a temporary loss of power from 9 to 23CE, the later Han lasted from 25 to 220CE Moved capital from Chang'an east to Luoyang. Ignoring the problem of inequitable land distribution led to increased banditry and rebellion led by disgruntled peasants. In the Yellow Turban uprising (rebels wore yellow headgear), governments used the military to suppress rebellions but the collective efforts of peasants weakened the Han dynasty - factions developed in courts that affected the central government. This internal weakness led to the downfall of the empire, which was divided into several large kingdoms.

Hellenistic Philosophies (II)

Skeptics doubted the existence of absolute certain knowledge and so did not espouse strong political, social, or moral beliefs. They taught that people should abandon their search for certain answers and find an inner peace. Stoics believed human beings were part of a universal family; people must help each other through difficulties and deal with stress and anxiety by finding their inner peace.

Spread of Epidemic Diseases

Smallpox and measles were the most pervasive; bubonic plague also broke out. Problem: epidemics devastated communities because they had not immunities and no medicines to fight against them. Smallpox devastated the Roman Empire - reduced population by approximately one-quarter during the 2nd century BCE. The bubonic plague, or Black Death, started in China and spread to Europe along trade routes in the early 1330s. It killed an estimated 25 million people, or one-third of Europe's population. Epidemics led to social change; trade declined, and people learned to be self-sufficient.

Mayan Civilization

Society located in present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador, classical Maya ruled from c. 300-900 CE. Terrace farming was developed to capture rainwater and silt to increase soil fertility and hence agricultural production: cotton, maize, cacao. Achievements: elaborate system of writing, accurate calendar (365.242 days), and concept of zero. Solar year (365 days) set agricultural patterns, and ritual year (260 days) set daily activities and divided the year into 13 months with 20 days each.

Greek Philosophy - Socrates

Socrates developed a method of questioning aimed at exposing ethics and morality through a series of increasingly difficult questions; his student Plato recorded his thoughts in a series of writings called dialogues. Socrates suggested that honor was more important than wealth and fame and stressed the importance of personal integrity: "The unexamined life is not worth living." Charged with encouraging immorality, Socrates was tried by Athenian citizens in 399BCE He was sentenced to death and chose to drink hemlock, a poison.

Government in Classical Persia

Sophisticated government led to the development of a new class of educated bureaucrats who played an important role in the daily affairs of the empire. State-owned slaves provided labor for large-scale construction projects: roads, irrigation systems (qanats), city walls, and palaces.

Long-distance Trade

Specialized labor and efficient means of transportation encouraged trade between groups such as the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians as early as 3500BCE. Sumerians, who needed natural resources, traded regularly with the Harappan society by 2300BCE. Sumerians shipped woolen textiles, leather goods, sesame oil, and jewelry to India in exchange for copper, ivory, pearls, and semiprecious stones. Egyptian pharaohs imported cedar, as sign of wealth, for tombs.

Macedonian Empire

Supplied Greeks with grain, timber, and natural resources in exchange for olives, wine, and finished products. Alexander led an army of approximately 37,000 to invade the Persian Empire. By 331BCE, Alexander controlled Ionia, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. When Alexander died, the empire was divided among his top three generals.

Hellenistic Empire

The period during the reign of Alexander the Great and the subsequent division into three large states is known as the Hellenistic age (after Greece, or Hellas). Greek culture spread to areas from Greece to India and affected them politically, socially, and economically. Egypt (under Ptolemy), the wealthiest of the colonies, maintained organized agriculture (irrigation), industry, tax collection. Capital of empire, Alexandria, with a pivotal location on the Mediterranean, could harbor 1200 ships; home of world's largets library. The Hellenistic Empire was built on the former Persian Empire (led by Seleucus), impressive because of its size - reaching to the Indus River - its common law and trade practices, and its culture.

Warring States

Time of disunity for China (403-221BCE); many independent states adopted Legalist philosophies as the basis for their rule. Legalism helped the State of Qin to gain control and unify China. Turmoil forced Chinese to become introspective in an attempt to bring peace and unity to China. Development of three significant schools of thought - Confucianism, Legalism, Daoism. This period is also referred to as the Hundred Schools of Thought.

Silk Road

Trade route that connected the Han and Roman Empires in classical times. Facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and disease. SE Asia, China, and India traded silk and spices west to consumers in central Asia, Iran, Arabia, and the Roman Empire. Spices were important because they had numerous purposes (food preservation, flavoring, and pharmaceutical). Central Asia traded horses, jade, and magic potions west. Following the fall of the Han and Roman Empires, the route was revived in post-classical times, first by the Tang and Song and later by the Mongols.

Fall of Byzantine Empire

Turks invaded from the east and conquered Constantinople (later renamed Istanbul) in 1453. In 1071, the Byzantines lost most of Anatolia (their breadbasket), which led to their ultimate demise (they had no food source).

Qin Dynasty

Used Legalist philosophy to restore order and stability to China and end the Warring States period. Gave peasants land rights to farm remote territories, a practice that weakened traditional social hierarchy. Centralized bureaucracy ruled the state. Qin empire expands, attacking one province at a time and unifying China. Great achievements: standardized weights and measures, scriptwriting. Short-lived because of strict laws and harsh punishments.

Hinduism

World's oldest organized religion, originated in India. Spoke to needs and interests of average people. Bhagavad Gita ("Song of the Lord"), a brief poem composed by many unidentified authors, outlines what Hinduism expects of individuals and the path to salvation. Salvation is achieved by individuals who meet responsibilities by obeying laws of their caste, not material success. Hindu ethics: dharma - righteousness (obey religious and moral laws), artha - wealth (to uphold dharma and provide for family and society), kama - desire (take pleasure in social, physical, and sexual activities), moksha - salvation of the soul. A person is reincarnated on the basis of behavior into one of four castes (and later a fifth, untouchables). Limited spread beyond India.