APY 202- Chapter 5: Foraging

Demography of the Dobe Ju/'hoansi

-10% of Dobe residents were over 60 years old. -They and the young (30% of population) did not participate directly in food procurement. -Children are kept in camp with mothers until adolescence. -Do not expect regular work until marriage (15-20 for women, 20-25 for men) -40% of the population are dependents who live on food the young and middle-aged adults bring in. -Number of non producers are surprisingly high. -The Dobe environment only provides what is collected. -There is a large control of population growth. -Their fertility is unusually low. -Ju/'hoansi do not become pregnant again until four years after the birth of their previous child. -They do not have a long postpartum taboo and they do not use chemical or mechanical birth control. -They have long breast feeding which is probably a factor, it inhibits ovulation to some degree. -Gonorrhea may have reduced fertility too. -Mothers nurse babies for up to three years until they can digest tough foods. -Infant mortality and infanticide are both prevalent (20% of infants die in their first year). -Can balance the population with the environment successfully. -Climatic and other disturbances can cause hunger and starvation, keep numbers and inert needs low and operating on the principle of flow. -Well prepared for hardship and adapt well.

John Marshall

-Anthropologist who lived with neighboring Khoisan on and off since 1951. -Established the Nyae-Nyae Foundation to assist those who live in or near game parks. -Lots of alcoholism, crime, and disease is present, and illegal hunting using guns and horses has depleted game. -Employment opportunities are limited, some people work for tourist camps, others herd cattle, and many live on hand-outs or petty crime. -In 1997 the Nyae-Nyae Foundation had become divided and disorganized. -Some argue the !Kung should transition to cattle herding. -In neighboring Botswana, the Kalahari dwellers are living in more grim conditions, the last 1,000 people dwelling on the Central Kalahari Game Reserve are under pressure to abandon their traditional hunting territories and move to settlements where there is little prospect for employment. -Independence has brought many benefits to the people of both Namibia and Botswana, but they are not evenly distributed. -The Khoisan peoples (50,000) have become marginalized in their own lands. -People still care and share in the same manner as the past. -They have retained their dignity and cultural self-identity, due to their "communal mode of production" and egalitarian spirit.

Homo sapiens

-Appeared 30,000 to 40,000 years ago in Europe, Asia, Africa, and soon after North and South America. -Evolved due to major cultural breakthroughs in subsistence technology critical too foraging. -Many individuals cooperated to hunt. They used tools, has kill sites, and camps. -Had specialized tools: bladed instruments of wood, antlers, ivory -Sturdy housing and clothing -Produced art: cave paintings in France and Spain -Long-distance trade for tool-making materials, created a collective knowledge over many groups from a wide area. -Cultural diversity (ex: Africa had eight different traditions of tool making)

Batak Resource Utilization

-Batak utilize a much narrower use of plants and animal resources. -Wild resources are seasonally available and cannot be used if their availability coincides with the planting or harvesting season. -They obtain many lowlier foods which have changed preferences for traditional foods.

Batak Division of Labor

-Changes in the division of labor due to some foraging activities being discontinued, the depletion of game, and the fact that women harvest rice from August-October while men occupy forest camps. -Over 10% of the time men sleep alone.

Batak Length of Work Day

-Contemporary Batak work longer hours. -Foraging is for trade and subsistence and women now make articles for use in agriculture. -Since many economic activities are now pursued, none of them are as successful if they were to be pursued full time. -Philippine government has enacted some progressive legislation to allow indigenous people to apply for Certificates of Ancestral Domain Claim in return for drawing up a community-based resource management plan that that emphasizes conservation. -May be helped by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, which sometimes creates more sedentary living.

Quality of Life: Food and Nutrition of the Dobe Ju/'hoansi

-Dobe Ju/'hoansi lead secure and easy lives. -Vegetables account for the bulk of food that is found. -Meat is only about 20-25% of sustenance (delicacy). -Gathering is 2.4 times more productive than hunting. -One hour of hunting brings in 800 calories, but one hour of gathering brings in 2,000 calories. -Women are the chief breadwinners in society. -Drought resistant mongogo nuts are a staple in food making up 50% of the vegetable diet. -Daily consumption is about 300 nuts- 1,260 calories and 56 grams of protein= 2.5 lbs of rice or 9 oz of lean meat. -At the camp Lee studied people ate 9 oz of meat over day too- 2,140 calories and 92.1 grams of protein per day. -A man will take 5-6 days to hunt and then take 1-2 weeks off to rest -Two or three times a week all-night dances are held. -Men might take a month vacation. -Women have considerable leisure time too. -In one day a women collects enough food to feed her family for three days. -Household chores take between one to three hours. -Adults spend 6 hours a day acquiring food, two and a half day a week- total 15 hours a week.

Climate and Resources of the Dobe Ju/'hoansi

-Dobe environment is inhospitable for humans (protects from invasion and assimilation/contact). -Semiarid savannah with a scattering of trees and grasslands and very few permanent water holes. -Temperature ranges from below freezing on winter nights to 100 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade in the summer. -Rainfall is extremely variable, it rains for 6 months and is dry for the other 6. -Rainfall varies from year to year. -Sandiness of soil and variable rainfall makes agriculture impossible. -Vegetation is scattered so it is not an ideal hunting ground. It can not support large migratory herds. -Exploit a wide a variety of resources. -Dobe support about 500 species of plants and animals, they use about 150 plants and 100 animals and eat 100 plants and 50 animals. -They gather wild nuts, berries, melons, other fruits, dig for roots and tubers, collect honey, and hunt warthogs, kudu, leopard tortoises, springhares, guinea fowl, and rock pythons. -They use poison arrows to shoot large animals. -Use nares or traps or dogs to hunt small animals. -Their huts are constructed of branches and grass found through the area. -Ostrich eggshells make ideal water containers. -A wooden digging stick will last several months. -Bows, arrows, and quivers last years. -They exchange goods for iron to make tools and they collect scraps of metal from Botswana Veterinary Station to make arrowheads. -A major problem they face is scarcity of water.

Social Relationships of Inuits

-Extensive networks of kin, the most important social unit is the extended family or "real family". -Extended family is organized into larger kin groups that work and camp together. -Families can shift on a short-term and long-term basis quite easily based on resources and personal preference. -The Inuit place great value on restraint, it is frowned upon to show emotion. -Ideal personality traits: shyness, patience, generosity, and even temper. -Wisdom is valued and listened to when making decisions, but people do not impose their wills on one another. -Many local populations traditionally had no formal group leadership. -People who break social norms will one teased or avoided. -Being ostracized is the worst punishment in these harsh conditions.

Settlement Patterns and Mobility

-Forager groups today tend to be nomadic, seasonal migrations are adjusted to the availability of resources in different places and times. -Limits of storage and transport technology are important. -Foragers exhibit a territorial system of land use. -Identify a particular tract of resources as belonging to a limited group and prevent outsiders from using it. -Usage is exclusive and owners will protect their territory by force. -There are some more sedentary patterns too (ex: Kwakiutl of the American northwest coast, the Chumash of Southern California, the Ainu of Japan, and the Andaman Islanders of India) -These groups often have large quantities of stable and storable resources. -This especially includes environments with a lot of fish and shellfish because these are often concentrated, predictable, and abundant.

Food as Energy

-Foragers live on low-energy budgets. -All humans have roughly the same basic nutritional requirements and constraints, modified by body stature and environmental factors like altitude or climate. -What varies is the amount of energy expended, directly or indirectly, in support of a particular population. -We extract energy from the environment, but also expend energy doing so. -Therefore, most humans live on a high-energy budget. -Primary source of energy that foragers expend in food procurement is stored in their own muscles. -They may expend some energy building shelters, traps, and even boats or weirs, but relatively little effort is directed into the construction of complicated infrastructure or food procurement (ex: cleared fields, irrigation, or fuel-burning machines). -Foragers spend much less energy to support a single unit of population than do other peoples. -Efficient system because they also support themselves well in: 1. nutrition 2. leisure time 3. physical well-being -Efficient in preserving their resource bases because they exploit a wide variety of foods. They place relatively limited demands on any one of their resources. -Way of life limits population growth, numbers remain proportionate to those of animal and plants they depend on. -Foragers interfere relatively little with other components of their ecosystem (relative equilibrium, "conservationist"), except the populations of species on which they feed because humans are predators. -Many foragers became pastoralists or horticulturalists when agriculture developed and population expanded. -As new agriculture techniques developed horticulturalists turned to intensive farming which led to further growth in human populations. -As new technology is introduced most populations grow. -This causes people to reshape their environments and in the process they must maintain themselves at the expense of the equilibrium of the ecosystem. -Inter-related factors operate to maintain people in balance with their resources: 1. Limitations imposed by storage technology 2. Absence of a wider market for the food produced 3. Lack of fossil fuels 4. Environmental conditions that constrain population growth.

Batak Seasonality

-Forest camps used more frequently during the first 6 months of the year (when weather is dry). -Marked seasonality in contemporary foraging.

The Arctic Ecosystem

-From October to July the waters are locked in ice and the land is frozen, almost bare of all animal and plant life. -Arctic animals (except seals and walruses) will migrate south or hibernate. -My midwinter ice is 6-7 feet thick. -Temperatures during 18 hour Arctic nights range from -16 degrees Celsius to -27 degrees Celsius. -40 mph winds with 70 mph wind gusts are common. -The Hudson Strait area has 45 foot tall tides that build walls of broken ice and make navigation extremely hazardous. -Freeze will continue into late July most years. -Land on top of the water will enjoy a brief summer. -Temperatures rise above freezing and day-time will last 22 hours. -Lichens, mosses, shrubs, and tufted grasses sprout on the tundra. -Variety of wildlife: Caribou, musk oxen, polar bears, foxes, rabbits, and migratory birds -Seals, walruses, salmon, and whales all appear. -Arctic summer lasts 6-12 weeks. -No vegetables, edible roots, or fruits in the Arctic/ there is no growing season. -Sustenance is centered on animal life- hunting, fishing, trapping/gathering of duck eggs, clams, etc. -These animals structure Inuits patterns of movement.

Hunting and Gathering

-Humans and their immediate hominid ancestors have lived on earth for more than 4 million years and for more than 99% of that time they grew no food. -Lived by hunting animals and gathering the wild plants in their habitats. -Known as hunting and gathering or foraging. -Requires: 1. Careful scheduling for collecting and hunting 2. Detailed environmental knowledge 3. Sophistication is storing, processing, and preparing food items -Involves active management of resources: 1. Water diversion 2. Building weirs or dams out of branches 3. Selective burning of grasslands or forests

The Organization of Energy

-Hunters and gatherers subsist on primarily wild animals and plants. -Less direct or intensive intervention to regulate the growth and reproduction of life forms on which people depend. -Diet is determined by habitat -As local environments vary so do dietary staples of inhabitants: 1. People who live in areas where plant life is more abundant rely on vegetable foods like fruits and nuts. (ex: Dobe dwellers of the Kalahari) 2. Others rely on meat and fish (ex: Eskimos) -Diet must be diversified because it must be responsive to seasonal and annual fluctuations in resources.

The People of Dobe Today

-In 1963, 3/4 of Dobe people relied on hunting and gathering and there was an absence of institutions associated with state and market economies. -1967, the first trading post opened near the region, fence was erected to cut the Dobe off with their nearest neighbors the Nyae Nyae. -Foraging was limited and the government offered assistance with cattle herds --> permanent mud-walled houses began to be built next to cattle kraals (enclosures). -Many began to depend on government feeding programs, a problem made worse by game laws of the 1980s that limited hunting rights. -The shape of the village changed, reflecting a social order, houses were in a line. -The current diet has lead to refined carbs which leads to heart disease and high levels of serum cholesterol, unlike before. -Heavy tobacco and alcohol consumption. -Many men were with the South African Army during the war with Angola which increased the cash in circulation.

Claiming the Land

-In Alaska the economies and ways of life of the indigenous people were transformed in the course of the Cold War and in the aftermath of oil exploitation. -U.S. government considered Inupiat territory to be frontline area and and disrupted hunting and gathering by the appropriation of 4,500 acres of land. -The Atomic Energy Commission then said they would detonate atomic bombs in this territory in order to create an artificial harbor. -People were outraged and a united Inupiat organization emerged for the first time it was devoted to securing aboriginal land rights, a movement that came to cooperate with other Native American political action committees. -The Alaska Federation of Natives formed to deal with non-indigenous forces such as state and federal bureaucracies, oil companies, and business interests. -After years of litigation, Inupiat and other Alaskan populations received substantial allocations of land and a percentage of oil and gas royalties. -The Inuits have lost much of their autonomy. -In September 1988, the Canadian government passed legislation giving the Inuit and other native peoples of Canadian northern territories formal titles to their extensive and potentially resourceful laden lands.

Managing Resources

-In North and South America foragers use fire to burn forest cover on a regular basis in order to promote the growth of vegetation supporting favored game animals or favored root tubers or berries. -Promotes long-term health of the forest by preventing buildup of undergrowth that can cause fires or disease. -Pre-Columbian North American forest and plain vegetation was a product of human land use strategies engaged in by both native farmers and hunter-gathers, with seasonal and selective burning being very important (ex: California). -Foraging peoples engage in varying degrees of exchange with other societies. (ex: Mbuti of Zaire are self-sufficient hunters, but they sell antelope and other fame to visiting traders to buy the agricultural products and manufactured goods of their Bantu and Sudan neighbors, doubtful they could service otherwise. Dobe people also trade with and work for Bantu farmers).

Batak Encampment Duration

-In the past forest camps would be occupied for periods of up to 3-4 weeks. -Occupation periods currently are only about 2-7 days. -Individuals must balance foraging and participation and cultivation of the market economy. -People return to swiddens an settlement houses. -Greater rate of residential mobility. -Travel to and from camps is more costly in terms of energy. -Resources are more quickly depleted because camps are farther apart. -A lot more baggage is traveled with,

The Batak Foragers of the Philippines

-It has been assumed that as hunters and gatherers take up farming they become sedentary. -James Eder said that the changes a hunter-gatherer society undergoes are determined by its own cultural characteristics. -Batak are becoming more mobile as they become integrated into a wider society. -The Batak inhabit the mountains of the central Palawan Islands and are distributed in eight groups, each associated with a particular river valley. -3-24 people in each household, with groups 3-10 km upstream from coastal Filipino villages. -1/2 of basic needs are provided through foraging (can be fully dependent if needed), but they also depend on trade, horticulture, and wage labor (newest). -There has been an increased desire for lowland foods and manufactured goods. -Batak settlement pattern has greatly changed. -When root crops were the mainstay of Batak horticulture, periodic visits to swidden fields were a part of a pattern of year-around residence in temporary forest camps. -Today, Batak plant swidden fields exclusively with upland rice, and they will make periodic foraging trips to the forest from their field houses. -Government encouraged Batak to settle on the coast and turned 5 of these settlements in reservations (these were overrun by non-Batak groups).

The Inuit

-Live along the vast, treeless plains (tundra) and along the changing coastlines of the Arctic. -Were isolated until recently. -The Inuit Eskimo language family includes people distributed from northwest Alaska and Canada to the coasts of eastern Greenland and Labrador. -Money has recently become an important factor of their relationship with the environment. -Most Inuit groups are fully settled, but some are still hunter-gatherers.

Overexploitation of Resources

-Miskito of Nicaragua came close to wiping out the local turtle population. -Turtles are their source of protein, but they were lured by cash payments from turtle-packing companies to hunt the animals almost to the verge of extinction. -Nine year war with the Sandinistas interrupted commercial fishing and allowed the population to recover. -The Miskito are looking to fain rights to their sea territories so they can once again manage it by traditional means to preserve the valuable resource. -Native North Americans found themselves in contact with the European market for beaver skins in the 18th century and they nearly hunted them to extinction, even though they depended on this animal for centuries. -When going from a limited market and then tied in to an unlimited market, the attraction of short-term gains often lead to the depletion of a resource.

Changes in Settlement and Hunting Techniques

-Most Inuits are now sedentary due to industrialization. -They live year-round in villages or towns. -Inuit children can now go to high school near their towns. -Snowmobiles and boats mean hunters can travel easily to to hunting grounds in short periods of time. -Store-bought food provides insurance against hunger (caribou are still important, but hunted with high power rifles). -Some Inuits complain that rifles have destroyed the trust between humans and animals. -Lead to near-extinction of caribou, they are now regulated by the U.S. government. -Sometimes seals will sink if hit with a rifle. -Many Inuit customs such as visiting, limit the amount of time spent on hunting therefore indirectly maintaining a balance between needs and resources. -Social customs and technology often intervene.

Seasonal Migrations of the Inuit

-Nomadic, dispersal in small groups in times of plenty and concentration in large groups in times of scarcity. -Focus on Netsilik and distant relatives on Alaska. -In summer, Netsilik take advantage of food abundance and form small groups of 20-30 people consisting of one or more extended families that move inland to take advantage of fish and caribou migrations. -Build stone weirs (circular dams) to trap school of salmon. -To hunt caribou they may use knife-lined pits, stalk them with guns, or hunt them with bows and arrows (past). They may stampede animals into a trap. -Caribou provide meat and skins for clothing. -1970- Balkci estimated a family needs 30 skins to seem them through winter. -In October and November Netsilik live on food primarily stored during the caribou hunts and some fresh fish and musk ox. -Most important job in these months is women making winter clothing. -In December, Nestilik join together in camps of 50-100 people to hunt for the cold-season resource of seals. -While some seals migrate south in the winter, most dig breathing holes and stay below sea ice. -Must wait at seal holes motionless for hours with harpoons. -Seals and occasional foxes are sources of fresh food in the winter. -In May or June tents are moved to solid ground and hunting seals is easier and more productive because they may leave the water. -In July the ice cracks and the Netsilik move again into smaller groups for their annual land treks. -The Inuit store food by smoking it and storing the surpluses in stone or ice caches. -The Inuit work on a high energy budget. -They must eat a high-calories diet, -Must protect their bodies from cold using shelters (igloos and skin tents), clothing, and heating shelters. -Must feed sled dogs. -There are many material goods to travel with, making change camps much more difficult.

The Dobe Ju/'hoansi

-One of five culturally related groups of southern Africa who are known collectively as the San. -Eventually displaced by the Bantu and European invaders, those not killed were forced back into the arid wastes of the Kalahari Desert and its surrounding areas in Botswana, Namibia, and Angola. -50,000 San who still live in and around the Kalahari are slowly being absorbed by the surrounding agricultural, industrial, and pastoral communities although they still maintain their distinct cultural identity. -The Ju/'hoansi San who live in the Dobe are (northern ridge of the Kalahari desert) are an exception. -Although this group has been in contact with the Bantu and Europeans since the 1920s, share water holes with Bantu pastoralists, and sometimes work for them, the majority (over 70%) were almost self-sufficient hunters and gatherers when first studied by contemporary anthropologists. -In the mid 1960s Richard B. Lee lived with them and they has no interest in agriculture, herd animals, or firearms. -They did not pay taxes or receive services (except smallpox vaccines) from the government of Botswana. -Traded with neighboring pastoralists but worked for them only occasionally. -Until recently, this group was independent because they occupied a territory no one else wanted. -Until 1992 this group was in a power struggle among white-ruled South Africa, Angola, and Namibia (a newly independent state). -Some of their land is still divided by a massive chain-link fence and and some forager sowed as South African army scouts. -Their land is being transformed dramatically.

Settlement Patterns of the Dobe Ju/'hoansi

-Rainfall determines people's settlement patterns (water). -During dry season from June to September Ju/'hoansi congregate in large camps of 20-40 people around the large permanent water holes, the only sources of water. -People primarily rely on tubers and roots about a day's walk (6 miles) from camp. -Cool, clear weather allows for good tracking and hunting. -Women periodically hike to the mangongo forests to collect nuts. -By August, many preferred local foods are eaten up and rising temperatures make hunting and long gathering treks hard and uncomfortable. -Turn to less desirable foods like gums and bitter tasting roots and melons. -In October rains fill hollow trees and standing pools with water, this is the season of plenty -The Ju/'hoansi split into groups (2 or 4 families) and scatter over land to take advantage of the new crop of fruits, melons, berries, and leafy greens and new generations of birds and animals. -For 7-8 months the groups move along, spending about 3 days in each spot and returning periodically to the permanent water hole. -The cycle will begin again in May. -Since they are so mobile, all of their goods can easily be left behind (including their houses), pack belongings into leather sacks. -In 2-3 hours a small hut can be constructed, and all of the huts are arranged in a circle where camp activity takes place. -A hut serves as a storehouse, marker, and place to sleep...that's all.

Foraging

-Rare as a primary subsistence strategy, lands for this are becoming encroached by outsiders. -Only 179 hunter-gatherer societies survived into the 1970s, and far fewer remain today. -These societies are heavily affected by industrialism and market economies.

Batak Encampment Size

-Rare for more than 7 households to camp together while in the past 30-40 houses may have joined together. -Simply fewer Batak. -Scheduling habits that affect encampment duration.

Economic Exchange: Reciprocity

-Rule of reciprocity: systematic sharing of food and other goods. -Near constant give and take among individuals: 1. The organization of rights to things 2. The production of things 3. Their ultimate exchange. -Some resources in every society are kept and consumed by those who produced them or procured them, while the rest enter the society's network of exchange. -Exchange: allows people to to dispose of their unneeded surpluses and against future need and to acquire necessities from other people's unneeded surpluses (social cement, primary bond that holds societies together). -Reciprocity plus a fundamental role in the production process, the obligation to reciprocate is strong. -Three forms of reciprocity: 1. Generalized 2. Balanced 3. Negative -"Social Storage"

Power, Influence, and Social Control

-Some members of a hunting and gathering band will have more power than others. -Men tend to have more influence than women. -Rare to have institutionalized power. -Decision-making power is spread broadly between families and those who disagree move away. -Social control tends to be informal. -Order is maintained on a day to day consensual basis instead of adhering to codified laws enforced by an administrative hierarchy. -Codes of conduct are established through the group's traditions, myths, and religion. -Crime and punishment are determined by the group at any given time. -Ex: Inuits use a "dueling song" and who is right is determined through public opinion. -If a dispute can not be resolved then the two families will often move apart. -This social organization is fluid, flexible, and equal. -If food is abundant, foraging can support a highly structured cultural system accompanied by a high population density (ex: some Old and New World foraging societies had large year-round settlements with hundreds of members and inequality of status and wealth/ Native Americans had similar systems with chiefs and hierarchies, including castes and slavery) --> their resources could be stored or transformed into political power and prestige, resembling advanced agricultural societies

Anderson

-Study focuses on the neglected area of basketry. -Prized for aesthetic and utility. -Baskets are vital as containers for goods of all sorts. -Requires material in the form of straight, supple growth taken from shrubs and trees unaffected by insects, diseases, or accumulated dead growth. -Does not occur often in nature, but can be encouraged by "light fires: 1. Fires set before shrubs reach maturity therefore inducing rapid growth of fresh grass and an abundance of supple and harvestable branches. 2. When old growth burns it results in a catastrophic destruction of root systems and animal life.

Scott Cane (1996)

-Study of the hunter-gatherers or Gugadja people of the Great Sandy Desert in Australia. -Had complex methods of procurement and processing, with many nutritional components and key foods. He quantified data on seed collection and processing as well. -Exploited the habitat well of extreme aridity. -Seeds were stored for "hungry season". They take a lot of energy to collect and process, but can be store so they are "worth it" -What people eat and how much effort they expend depends on the season -126 species of plant for 138 different economic, social, and medicinal functions. -Edible seeds collected from 42 plants. -Also hunted and processed reptiles, tubers, fruits, birds, and large game. -Seasonal rhythm: 1. Vegetables dominate the winter season (70% of food consumed) 2. Meat and vegetable foods in the spring season -Women and men both contribute about the same but it varies on the season.

Surviving in the Modern World

-The Inuit share often, an example seen when they introduced a mission store. -As the Inuit integrated into the wider market economy they turned the original store into a cooperative store, owned and maintained by the Inuit to serve the community. -Kin maintain ties through telephones and CB radios. -In the Inupiat territory, in NW Alaska, where 74% of the population is Inuit, the Inuit language remains in use and is taught in school and traditional food is still preferred by most.

Demography of Inuits

-The Inuits had more difficulty caring for depends, often older people were left to die. -Uneven sex ratios leads to beliefs of female infanticide. -Infanticide may be deliberate attempts at family planning, to prevent people from being hungry. -Inuit populations are rapidly increasing because of health care being provided by U.S. and Canadian governments. -This is leading to increased fertility rates (birth of 9-10 children). -Population is growing at 3% a year.

Social Organization

-The way foragers organize themselves politically and socially widely varies. -Due to less-desirable habitats with relatively sparse environments and highly variable resources, there are some attributes of social organization broadly shared: 1. Foragers typically live in small groups, camps of closely related families. The size of camps and of the society is limited by the local supply of natural resources (during the worst season of the year). 2. Population densities are normally low. Used to not be true (ex: northwest coast of North America).

Reciprocity of the Dobe Ju/'hoansi

-They have a continuous giving and receiving of gifts. -General reciprocity/ hxaro = basis of economy and much of their social life as well. -When hunting they find a variety of foods they can share with the whole camp. -Distribution of food is a common cause of quarreling. -With a large animals distribution will be formalized (cutting and distributing meat). -Smaller animals and vegetables are distributed more informally. -Gifts will also be passed on after a few months. -Trade with the Bantu but not among themselves.

Resilience, Stability, and Change

-Ties of dependency among family are very low for foragers. -The people adjust to their local environment by making use of any local resource that is abundant. -Environmental problems will be transmitted from one group to another. -Ex: Vikings did not adapt to their environment as well as the Inuits and their population died out. -Sometimes indigenous hunter-gatherer adaptations will be superior to European technology.

Energy Flow among the Baffin Islands

-Use of fuel and muscle power, hours spent working for wages and foraging, acquisition of store-bought and wild foods. -Over 54 weeks: 1. 12.8 million kcal spent of human energy in hunting, mining, and carving, working for wages, taking care of household tasks, traveling, and visiting. 2. 885 gallons of gasoline, 615 gallons of kerosene, and 10,900 rounds of ammunition. 3. Acquired 12.8 million kcal in wildwood for human consumption (7.5 million kcal for the dogs) 4. 7.5 million kcal of store-bought food. -Important sources of energy lie outside the local economy, they depend on industry and fossil fuels. -Inuit ate well, they had game like seal, whale, and caribou which remains as 85% of their food. -They purchased items they didn't hunt or collect like sugar, PB, honey, powdered milk, etc. -Provides adults with 3,000 calories per day. -Protein intake accounts for 44% of their calories. 33% is carbs and 23% is fat.. -When men worked for a month and families ate store-bought food their diet was 62% carbs and only 9% protein which is an unhealthy balance.

Batak Hunting Technology

-Used to hunt with blowguns. -Now hunt with spears, dogs, bows and arrows, and homemade guns.

Social Practices and Group Composition of the Dobe Ju/'hoansi

-Very gregarious people, spend 1/3 of their time visiting other camps and 1/3 of their time entertaining guests. -The habit of visitation is probably an adaptation to having to adjust camp populations to local resources. -Facilitates exchange of information about game and other matters of concern to dispersed local groups. -Gossip described by Lorna Marshall and Richard Lee. -Social customs also provide for much lengthier stays.

The Impact of Modernization

-William Kemp (1971) made a study of energy use in one of the last all-Inuit communities on Baffin Island, north of the Netsilik territory (Pella Bay Community- studied by Balicki saw similar changes). -There were four households Kemp studied with 26-29 people in the total population. 3/4 of the families lived in wood-frame tents and 1/4 of the families lived in a wood house supplied by the government ($670). -Industrial technology: two snowmobiles, motorized whaling boat, 22 ft freight canoe with an outboard motor, and several large sledges and 34 sled dogs. -1971 men hunted for sustenance but with rifles and harpoons. -Also mined soapstone and carved it into statuettes ($3500) for export and some worked for wages at government construction sites ($1225). -Made $1360 from selling skins.

Burke and Wills Expedition

1861- only one explorer survived because the others refused to accept assistance from the Aborigines.

Potlatch

A Native American celebration meant to show wealth and divide property among the people. -Northwest coast of North America -Reciprocity manipulated to gain social or political advantage -Chiefs or individuals may give away many goods but it was highly competitive and and loaded with political significance as these men tried to have political recognition and power.

Balanced Reciprocity

A mode of exchange in which the giving and the receiving are specific as to the value of the goods and the time of their delivery. -Carries an obligation of an eventual and roughly equal return. -More formal than generalized reciprocity. -Takes place between more distantly related individuals, friends of equal social or economic status, and formal trading partners. -What is given must be balanced by a return of something comparable. -What is returned may be very different form what is received and and the return may be given much later than the gift.

Sir John Franklin

A nineteenth century British naval officer whose ignorance and hubris leads to the death of around one hundred and forty men entrusted to his leadership on Arctic expeditions. He did not follow the methods of Inuit food procurement.

Low-Energy Budgets

An adaptive strategy by which a minimum of energy is used to extract sufficient resources from the environment for survival.

Negative Reciprocity

Exchange conducted for the purpose of material advantage and the desire to get something for nothing. -Between enemies or strangers -Impersonal transactions -Unfriendly haggling to theft -Ex: When the Mbuti exchange with horticultural neighbors they do the least work possible and their neighbors threaten them.

Dobe, Ju or !Kung (Basarwa)

Gathered nuts, vegetables, fruits, and by hunting wild animals on a semiarid plain in southwestern Africa. -Bulk of their diet was supplied by plants. -Generalized reciprocity: hxaro (ex: no way of preserving meat so it is shared by whichever family hunts it down) -There was still some level of individual self-interest because it is very difficult to keep relatives or neighbors from eating one's food or using ones other possessions.

Generalized Reciprocity

Giving and receiving goods with no immediate or specific return expected. -Normally between household members, relatives, and friends. -Ex: Households pool together foods and share in their consumption without recording who gets the most. -Continued over the long run, can rely on mutual long-term support. -A form of storage or warehousing: you give goods or services to someone else, and ultimately, even without close calculation, receive something comparable. -Useful when goods are perishable and could not be stored for future use. -Historically the characteristic form of exchange among foragers and was essential to their adaptation.

Inuit or Eskimos

Indigenous populations of the circumpolar regions of arctic Alaska and northeastern Canada. -Still support themselves primarily by hunting and fishing. -Also work increasingly by wage labor in the oil fields. -Trade their sustenance for the innumerable products of the industrial society for which they have come to depend on.

Bands

Large groupings forming camps of related families within a territory -May come together for ceremonies or intermarry -Flexible, respond to resources present...they will exploit resources jointly -Groups also reform on the basis of social habits

Batak

Located on the Palawan Islands of the Philippines. -Population of foragers who are increasingly caught up in the larger economy and are coming to rely on farming while retaining much of their traditional ways. -Quick to incorporate new technology into their subsistence systems.

Wilmsen

Stressed that every modern population has a long and varied history regardless of whether written records exist, and cannot be seen as direct evidence of how earlier populations may have lived. -Hunter-gatherers have been drawn into exchanges with other groups: 1. Occasional wage labor for agriculturists and pastoralists 2. Buying and selling to traders from industrialized societies 3. Receiving welfare from their governments -For modern foragers, food sources used to be more abundant and reliable, nutrition was better, and population densities were higher than we see today among foragers.

Bride Service

The cultural rule that a man must work for his bride's family for a variable length of time either before or after the marriage. -The groom may being his parents or siblings with him. -He will stay with his wife's people until his third child is born (10 years) then he may return to the group he was born with some of his wife's kin or move to a camp where one of his brother's is doing a bride service or where his wife's siblings settled. -This may have evolved as parents to keep their bride longer (she may have been married at 9 or 10). -Now people are marrying later. -Any member may leave their group and move into another where they have kin. -Kin is recognized by the same name or address (broad). -Considerable freedom of choice where to reside. -About a 1/3 of the population makes a shift in group affiliation every year. -Quarrels are often avoided.

Traditional Wisdom

This occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct simply because it is traditional or "has always been done".

Ethnographic Present

Use of the present tense to describe a culture, although the description may refer to situations that existed in the past. -Used when anthropologists are not actually working in the society at the time they are writing. -Lifestyles and technologies can radically change in a year.