AQA A Level Psychology: Research Methods

Extraneous variables

'Nuisance' variables that do not vary systematically with the IV and can often be controlled before the experiment begins.

The process of Thematic analysis

1. The researcher will select qualitative data e.g. a newspaper article on prejudice and discrimination in the media towards refugees. 2. They will read through the text, highlighting important points of reference and annotating the margins with comments. 3. Using the comments made in the margins, the researcher will categorise each excerpt according to what it contains, e.g. evidence of prejudice, discriminatory language, and positive regards towards refugees. 4. Thereafter, the researcher must decide if any of the categories are linked in any way e.g., stereotypical views, economic prejudice. 5. Once the themes are successfully identified, they can be used in shorthand to identify all aspects of the data (newspaper article) that fit with each theme e.g., writing PER for a 'positive experience for the refugee' 6. Once all the steps are completed, the themes that emerges will be critically reviewed to decide their relevance. 7. This process will be repeated for each piece of qualitative data of interest. 8. Qualitative comparisons are drawn between major and minor themes.

OBSERVATIONS - a non-experimental research method

A researcher will simply observe behaviour, and look for patterns. •Like all non-experimental methods, in an observation we cannot draw cause and effect relationships (only experiments can do this). •Observations are used in psychological research in one of two ways, a method or a technique.

Repeated Measures Design

All do condition 1 and 2 and compare results for 2 conditions

Counterbalancing

An attempt to control order effects in a repeated measures design. In counterbalancing, half of the participants take part in Condition A and then Condition B, and the other half take part in Condition B and then A as follows: Participant 1 A-B Participant 2 B-A Participant A-B and so on... Counterbalancing is sometimes referred to as the ABBA technique for obvious reasons.

quasi-experiment

An experiment in which investigators make use of existing difference between people.

field experiment

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.

Controlled observation strengths

Can be replicated

Participant observation strengths

Can get a first-hand account Naturalistic Ecological Validity

Limitations of natural experiments

Can't be precisely replicated. Naturally occurring event may happen rarely and limit generalisation of findings to similar situations.

Non-participant observation limitations

Can't be repeated

Limitations of quasi-experiments.

Can't randomly allocate Participants to conditions and therefore there may be a confounding variable

Volunteer sampling

Consists of participants self-selecting to take part in a study by either volunteering when asked or by responding to an advert.

Content Analysis

Content analysis is a kind of observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly, through qualitative data. Content analysis helps to classify responses in a way that is systematic, which can then allow clear conclusions to be drawn. This provides the framework to convert qualitative material into quantitative data for further analysis. Before beginning any analysis, researchers must familiarise themselves with the data first. This ensures that they are confident their coding system is appropriate for the task ahead. This is an important step and involved the researcher developing categories for the data to be classified.

Non-experimental methods

Correlation, observation, Case Studies, Questionnaire, Interview

primary

Data has been collected for a specific and reported by original researcher found and collected yourself eg interviews Questionnaires diary entries

secondary

Data which has already been collected by others for a purpose other than the investigation in which it is currently being used it already exists

Qualitive data strengths

Deeper understanding, Greater external validity, Provides a rich insight and understanding of an issue and allows the respondent to elaborate on their opinions

Qualitive data

Descriptive, Observations, Non numerical, Language based, Rich in detail, Expressed in words It can include a description of the thought and feeling and opinions eg i.e. Experiment? Interview? Open question in a interview Unstructured observations

Repeated Measures Design weaknesses

Doing both conditions may ,give participants practice (practice effects) on the task; make them bored or tired (fatigue effects); allow them to work out the aim of the study (demand characteristics), all of which might affect the DV measurement.

Structured Interview strengths

Easier to analyse quantitative data discover trends higher replicability

Closed Question Questionnaire strengths

Easier to analyse quantitative data/compare responses discover trends and replicate research

Quantative data strengths

Easy to interpret More objective and scientific with less chance of researcher bias

Participant observation limitations

Effical issues because ppts don't give there consent More chance of demand effects

Repeated Measures Design strengths

Fewer participants are required. This makes the design less costly and time consuming,

Qualitive data weaknesses

Harder to interpret Subjective

Strengths of lab experiments

High control over extraneous variables so researcher can ensure that any effect on the DV is likely because of the manipulation of the IV.

Non-participant observation strengths

High ecological validity

Semi-structured Interview limitation

Higher chance of demand characteristics in comparison to unstructured interviews

Strengths of Field experiments

Higher mundane realism than lab studies as the environment is more natural.

experimental design

How psychologist arrange there participants in relation to the conditions of IV

negative correlation.

If one variable increases and the other decreases

positive correlation.

If the two variables increase together

zero correlation.

If there is no relationship between variables

Participant observation

In this type of observation the person who is conducting the observation also takes part in the activity being observed Joining the work force in a factory to provide a first-hand account of productivity levels

Structured Interview limitations

Increased risk of investigator effects

Coding

Initial stage, categorising large amounts of information into meaningful units (produces quantitative data)

Controlled observation

Its conducted under strict conditions or laboratory setting where extraneous variables (such as day time temp) can be controlled to avoid interferences with the behaviour being observed Using a two way mirror to observe specially designed play room environment to accurately measure parent-child interactions without disturbing actions

Experimental research methods

Laboratory, Natural, Quazi, field

Unstructured Interview strengths

Less chance of demand characteristics and investigator effects

Open Question Questionnaire strengths

Less chance of researcher bias and detailed answers obtained allow new lines or enquiry to be followed

Covert observation limitations

Less demand characteristics Haven't given consent not good effics

Controlled observation limitations

Low ecological validity

Standardisation

Making sure that all participants are subject to the same instructions and experience

Limitations of lab experiments

May lack generalisability and external validity. may be artificial and not reflect everyday life.

Overt observation limitations

More demand characteristic

Limitations of corelations

No cause and effect relationship can be determined People often misinterpret correlations and come to erroneous conclusions that can cause public misunderstandings Studies using correlational analysis may lack population validity (generalisbility). There may be intervening variables that can explain why the co-variables appear linked.

Quantitative weaknesses

Not as detailed less to explore Narrow in detail It may fail to represent real life Can be viewed as reductionist as complex ideas are reduces to numbers

Strengths of quasi-experiments.

Participants can be tested under controlled conditions increasing scientific credibility

Covert observation strengths

Participants can't change their behaviour for the experiment High ecological validity Naturalistic

Demand characteristics

Participants interpret cues from the experimenter and research situation. They may change their behaviour as a result.

Open Question Questionnaire limitations

Participants may answer in a socially desirable way making answers less valid

directional hypothesis

Predicts a difference between groups/conditions and states the direction of the difference/relationship (e.g., which group will perform better or positive correlation). Suggested structure of how to write one: IV - DV - IV

Non-directional hypothesis

Predicts a difference between groups/conditions but does not state the direction of the difference (e.g., there will be a difference or correlation). Suggested structure of how to write one: DV - IV - IV

Strengths of natural experiments

Provide opportunities for research that may not have otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons. High external validity as IV is naturally occurring

questionnaires

Questionnaires are a type of self-report technique. A questionnaire is designed to collect information about a specific topic where participants provide information relating to their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. They can be designed in different ways, and can comprise of open questions, closed questions or a mixture of both. Questionnaires are always pre-determined and the order of questions is structured.

Matched Pairs

Recruit a group of participants recruit another group that matches them one for one. Group one does condition on e and other does condition 2 then compare results for matched pairs

Limitations of field experiments

Reduced control over extraneous variables due to increased realism so precise replication may not be possible. Ethical issues arise when Ps are unaware that they're being studies.

Semi-structured Interview strengths

Rich and interesting qualitative data less change of social desirability bias

Sampling

Selecting participants from a target population. The target population is the particular subgroup to be studied, and to which the research findings will be generalised. A target population is usually too large to study in its entirety, so sampling techniques are used to choose a representative sample.

natural experiments

Studies the effect of a naturally occurring IV researchers will have no control over the IV

Stratified sampling

Subgroups within a population are identified. Participants are obtained from each stratum ('layer' or category) in proportion to their occurrence within the population.

Non-participant observation

The person who is conducting the observation does not participate in the activity being observed to be as unobtrusive as possible and not engage with any activities happening When an observer sist in the corner of a room watching the teacher deliver the lesson

Randomisation

The use of chance to reduce the effects of the researcher's unconscious biases when designing an investigation.

Strengths of corelations

They can make use of existing data (secondary), and so can be a quick and easy way to carry out research (and more ethical) They can be used when it would be impractical or unethical to manipulate variables using another method Correlations are very useful as a preliminary research technique, allowing researchers to identify a link that can be further investigated through more controlled research Often, no manipulation of behaviour is required. Therefore, high in ecological validity because it is real behaviour being measured.

Independent Groups Design strengths

This design avoids order effects. As participants only take part in one condition of the experiment, they are less likely to become bored (fatigued) and give up reducing the impact of order effects

OBSERVATION as a research technique

This is when observations are used as part of another research method such as a lab study or a field study e.g. you may observe aggressive behaviour as part of a controlled lab experiment.

Matched Pairs weakness

Time consuming hard to find exact match if one participant drops out you lose 2

Investigator effects

Unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome. could have an effect on the DV.

Confounding variables

Variables that do vary systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure what caused the change in the DV. does have an effect on the DV.

Systematic Sampling

With systematic sampling, a predetermined system is used to select participants. For example, every fifth person is chosen and the same interval is then consistently applied to the whole of the target population such as the 10th, 15th, 20th person and so on.

A hypothesis

a specific testable statement about what the researcher expects to find.

Overt observation

an observation technique where the observations are open and the participants know they are being observed Filming publicly or joining a class and informing the other students that you are carrying out an observation

primary strengths

collected for the sole aim of the study has greater authenticity

Laboratory experiment

conducted in a lab, a highly controlled environment.

Covert observation

consists of observing people without their knowledge participants may be informed of their involvement in the study after the observation has taken place Secretly observing behaviour from nearby balcony or from across the room

Opportunity sampling

consists of selecting anyone who is available and willing to take part in the study at the time. This is a technique which is often used in psychological research due to its ease of application.

A Null hypothesis

contrasts the experimental hypothesis. It predicts the results found are purely due to chance.

secondary weaknesses

could be inaccurate Lowers the validity Imformating was not gathered to meet the specific aim of the research there could be significant variability in the quality of the data

Unstructured Interview limitations

difficult to analyse qualitative data time consuming and expensive

Random Sampling

every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. Examples are pulling names from a hat, or using a computer software to generates names/number randomly and without bias.

Independent Groups Design weakness

individual differences To many participant variables have to recruit twice as many people

intivew

interview are another type of self report technique which predominantly take place on a face‐to‐face basis, although they can also happen over the telephone. There are three different interview designs: structured participants answer a predetermined list of questions. unstructured more like a relaxed conversation between friends. Although it is not on the specification, it is also important to recognise that many fall between the two and are called semi structured interviews. Responses are usually recorded, with the use of an interview scheduled that the interviewer completes and/or audio or video recording, with the informed consent of the interviewee(s).

Correlation If there is no relationship between variables this is called a zero correlation.

is a relationship or association between two variables (co-variables).

Extraneous variable (EV)

is a variable other than the IV that may affect the DV and should therefore be controlled for otherwise they may become confounding.

Secondary strengths

less time consuming Means little resources have to be spent on the reasurch part of the experiment eg Journal extracts Sosial media Whatever has previously been collected

primary weaknesses

may be incorrect Researcher bias

Quantitative

numerical data that can be statically analysed and converted easily into graphical format eg SURVEYS experiments Structures observations Correlations Closed rating-scale Questionnaire questions

Independent Groups Design

one group does condition 1 and one group does condition 2 Measure dv for both groups and compare

An Aim

outlines the purpose of the study and clearly states what is being investigated

Overt observation strengths

ppts an give consent so efficaly good

closed Question Questionnaire limitations

predetermined list of questions limits response and ability to explore interesting answers

self report methods

questionnaires and interviews

Independent variable (IV)

the aspect of the experiment that the researcher changes or manipulates.

Dependent variable (DV)

the data that the researcher measures. The effect should only be caused by the IV.

Operationalisation of Variables

the term used to describe how a variable is clearly defined by the researcher

Matched pairs strengths

there are no order effects, and demand is lower because all participants are tested only once

Thematic analysis

•Qualitative data can be collected in a range of formats can be used, such as video or audio recordings, written responses, or even children's drawings... •Thematic analysis is a technique that helps identify themes throughout qualitative data. •A theme is an idea which can be explicit (stating you feel depressed) or implicit (using the metaphor of feeling under the weather when feeling depressed). •Thematic analysis produces further qualitative data, it is just much more refined.

Types of Observational Techniques

•There are many types of observational techniques that a researcher can choose from which all have their strengths and weaknesses, including: •naturalistic and controlled observation •covert and overt observation •participant and non-participant observation •structured and unstructured observation

OBSERVATIONAL research design

•This is where the entire study is an observation. •Depending on the method of observation used the researcher may collect qualitative data, quantitative data or both.