Assessment and Instruction

Vocabulary instruction (p. 54)

1. Higher frequency words should be given greater emphasis 2. Vocabulary should be introduced in the context of the current content areas being studied

Repeated reading and choral reading (p. 40)

Activities to promote fluency 1. Repeated reading: reading the text aloud two or more times in a row 2. Choral reading: reading aloud in unison (performed by the slowly and led by the teacher)

Repeated consonant sound

Advanced phonics activity: several sentences are written on the board beginning with the same consonant sound. Underline with words and ask students what they have in common.

Journals: Dialogue, double-entry, reader response, and personal (p. 45)

* Dialogue journal: student makes an entry and receives a written response from another student or the teacher * Double entry journals: students dithe page in half and write down different types of information on either side. One side could be a list of character and the other details and actions of each character * Reader response journal: students describe emotional and intellectual reactions to a text * Personal journal: this should only be read by the teacher to avoid student embarassment

Decoding and encoding

Decoding: Converting written words into sounds Encoding: putting sounds together to make a written word

Reading aloud (p. 30)

Easiest way to solidify print concepts

Phonics approach (p. 26)

Emphasizes the importance of the relationship between sound and comprehension. A teacher will begin with the smallest unit, phonemes and increases to word units, phrases, and sentences. Cons: English is a language of exceptions

Differentiating assignments (p. 57)

For when there is a broad discrepancy between students

Underlining

Introductory analytic activity: underline a given letter or digraph

Teaching affixes (p. 43)

Recommended sequence for affix instruction 1. focus on correspondence between letters and sounds 2. Introduce affixes in isolation such as pre-, re-, un-, -ing, -tion, and -ment 3. Show how affixes are used in specific words 4. Words are taught in context * Word webs with morpheme like port. Students draw lines from this hub to other words that share that root like deport, important, import, and portable

Root words, affixes, and contractions (p. 43)

* Root words are the basis from which complex words are developed * Affixes: A suffix is any ending to a word, an inflectional ending is a suffix that alters the meaning of the word such as -ing. Prefixes are regular and easily taught * Contractions are an abbreviated combination of two words. Deleted letters are replace with an apostrophe

Semantic and syntactic approaches (p. 54)

* Semantic approach: emphasizes the meaning of words (what makes sense) * Syntactic approach: emphasizes the order of the words in a sentence (are words in the sentence in the right order)

Structural and syllabic analysis versus word analysis and spelling (p. 47)

* Structural analysis: the decoding of multisyllabic words that have a prefix or suffix attached to the root * Syllabic analysis: the decoding of a multisyllabic word that follows one of the common syllable patterns, such as open and closed syllables - open syllable: ends with a vowel (typically a long vowel) - closed syllable: has a vowel but ends with a consonant (typically the vowel is short)

Three most common instruction models for language learning (p. 28)

1. Emergent literacy model Assumes a natural tendency towards language learning. A good environment for learning language is paramount and teachers should have a hands off approach 2. Language acquisition model Also assumes students have a natural tendency toward language learning but emphasizes the educator's role in learning. Strategies used help students examine their assumptions about language and self correct their learning process 3. Reading readiness model Assumes that without direct instruction, students will remain illiterate. Emphasis is placed on direct teaching.

Methods of text-based discussion (p. 37)

1. Instructional conversations: Sort of Socratic dialog where a teacher probes a student's knowledge with questions and tries to make the student evaluate their assumptions and judgements 2. Questions for the author 3. Think-pair-share exercises: a question is posed about the text, students discuss it in pairs and share their findings with the group

Recommended sequence for phonics skills instruction p. 22

1. Name the letters (uppercase and lowercase) 2. Letter sounds * Don't worry about multiple sounds for a letter * Discuss differences between vowels and consonants

Reading guides (p. 50 - 51)

1. Students look at table of contents 2. Identify the basic structure including subtopics and sections 3. Look at text and try to identify the thesis of each chapter, and supporting arguments 4. Note any unfamiliar vocabulary 5. Summarize each chapter (or each page in a difficult text) * For an exercise, focus on an individual paragraph, to examine how it works to develop the ability to read quickly and understand academic language in English

Improving reading rate (p. 55)

1. Whisper read while being monitored till proficient 2. Silent read and accountable for comprehension

Theoretical orientation (p. 26)

A set of assumptions and beliefs that prescribe goals and expectations for students that set up the classroom environment. The phonics approach The skills or balanced approach The whole language approach

Digraph, letter, and blend cards

A sophisticated synthetic phonics activity for students into the analytic stage: distribute cards with letters, digraphs, and blends. Students cooperatively form first short words and then multisyllabic words. (students have to consider medial and end sounds)

Initial consonant, digraph, and blend cards

A synthetic phonics activity: distribute cards with initial consonants, digraphs, and blends. These are matched with common rimes such as -at.

* Evaluative comprehension (p. 33, 34)

Advanced comprehension skill. Ability to consider the text as a whole and to make judgements about it. Three skills: 1. Recognize an author's bias: reveal personal inclination through details, passing comments, and subtle characterizations 2. Detecting propaganda: an argumentor information communicated for the sole purpose of helping or harming a particular group 3. Fact and opinion: necessary in order to think critically about advertising, editorial messages, and other opinionated communications

Three-letter words, basic digraphs, and consonant blends p. 22

After covering letters and sounds, cover CVC words, then simple words with initial digraphs (sh, ch, th), next short vowel blends (bl, sl, st)

Informal reading inventory (IRI) (p. 40 - 41)

An IRI is one of the most common versions of informal assessment. An inventory is tailored to an individual and frequently includes: word recognition list; graded reading passage; reading interest survey; print concepts test; phonemic awareness test; phonics test; structural analysis test; CLOZE test for content-area reading; vocabulary test; and spelling test

Word Sort

Analytic phonics activity: distribute cards with short words on them and then sort them according to certain criterion

Alternative assessments (p. 58)

Any assessments distinct from formal texts or examinations and often incorporate authentic classroom tasks in order to collect information about student achievement..

Fluency and reading (p. 39)

Automaticity theory: fluency is directly responsible for reading comprehension improvement * Fluency, word analysis skills, vocabulary, academic language, background knowledge, and comprehension are all related

Teaching multisyllabic words (p. 43)

Begin by teaching common affixes (prefixes and suffixes) to common morphemes

* Elements of literal comprehension (p. 33)

Beginning comprehension skill Four component skills: 1. Identification of the main idea 2. Identification of important details 3. Identification of the the sequence of events in a story or sequence of arguments in an expository text 4. Identification of cause and effect relationships (specific and explicit reasons for events)

Small-group instruction (p. 58)

Benefits: * Easy to monitor progress of a small homogenous group * Easy to give immediate feedback * Easy to perform assessment to drive further instruction

Activities that reinforce (p. 54)

Descriptive writing exercises, reading, and personal journals

Independent reading (p. 34)

Develops self-reliant comprehension skills

Challenges of ESL content-area instruction (p. 49 - 50)

Differences in culture can make context difficult. Idioms, figurative language, unorthodox sentence structure, and regional dialects in literature can also be a challenge. Also, may have difficult time with the language of literary analysis and may be literal minded in interpreting the text. They may have a difficult time forming an opinion or reaction when the setting or context is unfamiliar * Mathematics: Students from other cultures may stress getting the right answer at the expense of performing the right process. They may have a different way of writing numbers or placing the comma or decimal point and have terms that conflict. Many will not have experience math manipulatives, word problems, and having to demonstrate knowledge rather than mental math * Science: tends to be more interactive stressing independent thinking and drawing conclusions and as well as group work. A tremendous amount of new vocabulary is needed.and texts tend to have complex sentence structure and be written in a passive voice * Social Studies: students from other countries will have little prior knowledge since this subject is country specific

Grouping (p. 58)

Different groupings * Peer assistance groupings (high and low functioning students) * Cooperative grouping (same level)

Dramatic reading and reading with a recording (p. 40)

Dramatic reading: must be familiar with text - shows that text is a message with emotional and dramatic content Reading with a recording: student silently follows with recording - text should be easily decodable

Assessing the components of fluency (p. 41)

Fluency is an integration of disparate parts and can be assessed in it's three individual components. Holistic methods of assessment using choral or dramatic reading: familiar and unfamiliar texts, grade level and slightly too hard

Long vowel sounds and multisyllabic words p. 22

Focus first on one-syllable words like row and mate, then look at diphthongs (oi, ou, ea, ee), words with a vowel that precede an r or an l (r and l controlled vowels) like car, walk, and bird.

Whole language approach (p. 26)

Focus on the specific functions of language. Commonly used with adults. From beginning students participate in dialogues and role-plays in English. Phonics and word approach skills are incorporated into general reading experience

Improving fluency with ELL students (p. 40)

For ELL students, instruction must be given on patterns of intonation, phrasing, syntax, and punctuation. Movies work well for exposure to the rhythms and conventions of spoken English

Concepts About Print (CAP assessment) (p. 38)

Formal assessment developed by Marie M. Clay A CAP test book is a simple story containing at least 10 pages, some of which are turned up side down and on some of which the print is jumbles and oriented incorrectly. Student is asked questions about the story and text. When they come to the odd pages, they should be asked how to fix it.

SQ3R (p. 36)

Formula for in-depth reading since 1946 1. Survey: Notice title, section headings, key words in bold, or pulled quotes 2. Question: write questions expected to be answered in text 3. Read: read while considering questions 4. Recite: recite seaking answers to posed questions 5. Review: reviews a few times in the future

Basic concepts of print (p. 29)

Four print concepts according to Marie M. Clay 1. The meaning of print: fundamental concept of print, i.e. children who aren't reading yet but make up stories as they look through books 2. The direction of text: English texts moves left to right, up to down and must be tracked with a sweeping motion of the eyes called a return sweep 3. Letter, word, and sentence representation: must understand that letters make up words, words, sentences, etc. and recognize punctuation as well as different formats of print 4. Book orientation: identify books parts (cover, pages, back cover, title, author) 5. Letter recognition is often included as a fundamental part of early print awareness

Cuing (p. 56)

Four sentences are written on the board with the new vocabulary word 1. Sentence uses the target word broadly: "Larry's celerity made it possible for the job to be done by 5." 2. Sentence describes the target word in some way: "Rabbits, runners, and race cars are all known for their celerity 3. Sentence defines the target word: "Celerity means swiftness or speed." 4. Sentence asks a question: "Can you name something that moves with celerity?"

Concept maps (p. 56)

lines mapping relationships between words, i.e. write passes on the line from senate to legislation

Cueing systems (p. 27)

Graphophonemic cueing: Students recognize difference between written and spoken forms of a sound. Compare and contrasts between primary language and English. Should follow logical sequence such as introducing rules before exceptions Semantic/syntactic cueing: Students, who have achieved a moderate level of linguistic knowledge, predict the meaning of a word based on syntax and and grammar rules Discourse/Deep structure cueing: Association of relevant background with the words being discussed helps students memorize new vocabulary. Helps to familiarize with how different arguments are made in different languages

Fluency disruption (p. 39)

Happens because of: lack of familiarity with vocabulary, weak word analysis skills, a lack of background knowledge, a lack of familiarity with complicated syntactic structures, and an encounter with a text that has a number of seldom-used multisyllabic content words. Fluency must be cultivated gradually

Natural order hypothesis (p. 44)

Introduced by Krashen: linguistic acquisition has typical order. The ability to write will lag one or two levels behind oral proficiency. Students will begin by writing words, then sentences, next simple phrases and finally sentences and narratives. It will take longer to develop a sense of form in their writing and even longer to describe events and things accurately. Bilingual students will exhibit a strong reliance on primary language proficiency in their English compositions. Syntax errors found in speech will show up in writing and will often spell words according to the letter-sound correspondence in their primary language

Pictures, semantic maps, and Venn diagrams (p. 36)

Popular methods for increasing creative thinking * Semantic map best for non fiction: ideas and new vocabulary are presented in a network of relationships

Spelling development (p. 45 - 46)

Pre-phonetic stage: Phonetic stage: Transitional stage:

Formal assessment (p. 25)

Presentation of assessment scores Norm-referenced assessment: A student's score is compared with those of their peers. Often presented as a percentile. Identifies trends in performance Grade-equivalent score: A student's score is translated into a grade level (5.2 translates to a normal 5th grade level in the second month) Stanine (standard nine) scores: A nine point scale where 9 is the highest. Looks at general performance.

Challenges of teaching vocabulary (p. 57)

Preteach-reteach-practice-review

QAR system (p. 36)

Question-answer relationships Four question types that guarantee a range of questions 1. Right there: literal comprehension 2. Think and search: draws information from differnt parts of the text (support answers with details) 3. Author and you: inferential comprehension - students draw on own knowledge to answer a question about the text 4. On my own: consider own lives in context of issues raised by the text

Patterns of exposition (p. 53)

Reading skills will vary across content areas. All require logic and critical thinking. * Social studies: cause/effect and compare/contrast relationships and chronological sequence of events * Science: classification, problem solving, and cause/effect * Mathematics: Symbolic relationships and operations as well as jargon *Literature: figurative, lyrical, and metaphorical

Reliability and validity

Reliability is the consistency between scores from different administrations of an assessment Validity is the degree to which as test measures what it was intended to measure.

Decoding assessments

Requires students to pronounce the words they read. Difficult to do as a whole class. Have students read a list of simple, similar words to pinpoint specific problems

Encoding assessments

Requires students to write down words as they are spoken: Spelling tests Transcribing sentences to identify recurrent errors between sound and symbol (d instead of t)

Reciprocal teaching (p. 48 - 49)

Teacher and students alternate leaning a discussion about a piece of text. Helps to keep students engaged 1. Summarizing: students identify and discuss most important parts of the text 2. Questioning: develop questions based on the content of the passage to test knowledge (self-assessment strategy) 3. Clarifying: students add detail to summary (refocuses on meaning) 4. Predicting: students speculate on what happens next (reasonable predictions rely on accurate comprehension)

Synthetic and analytic phonics instruction

Techniques can be divided into two reciprocol categories. Those that 1. Synthesis: building words from sounds 2. Analysis: break words into component sounds

Yopp-Singer Test of Phonemic Aegmentation (p. 27)

Tests sound segmentation, which is the most difficult phonemic awareness task A list of 22 words, which are read by the teacher. The student repeats the component sounds in order

Development of written communication (p. 44)

The ability to create thoughtful and meaningful written communication is one of the last elements to develop. In the meantime, it is important to foster an appreciation for the various letterforms

Vocabulary and content knowledge (p. 53)

These factors are intertwined and as one improves so does the other.

Reading silently versus reading aloud (p. 40)

When reading is silent, the tendency is to skip over words that are not understood without taking time trying to decode structure or context. When reading aloud, a student is forced to confront every word in the text leading to automaticity

Homophones (p. 54)

Words that sound the same but have different spellings. These need to be explicitly taught.

Writing activities that improve reading comprehension (p. 44)

Writing activities can help to support and reinforce comprehension such as: summarizing, outlining, and responding.

Reading and building vocabulary (p. 53)

Written language contains larger and more sophisticated vocabulary and more complicated language structures than speech. Therefore, text is more important to the development of vocabulary, academic language, and background knowledge. Daily reading volume is directly correlated to academic achievement

Taking notes (p. 35)

Comprehension strategy Summarize, write questions, note sections to reread when significant or obscure

Contextual redefinition, semantic mapping, and semantic feature analysis (p. 47)

* Contextual redefinition: teacher writes out the sentence in which the new word first appears and then asks the students to use the context to guess the meaning of the new word. In some cases surrounding sentences must be included * Semantic mapping: teacher guides students in creation of a diagram demonstrating the relationships between the new words and known words * Semantic feature analysis: for teaching a group of related words. Teacher makes a grid with new words along the left side and a series of questions along the top. Students answer the questions for each new word

Reading activities (p. 51 - 52)

* Independent reading * Reading aloud * Shared reading * Guided reading * Informal reading

Assessed reading levels (p. 41 *IRI second paragraph)

* Independent reading level: understand and pronounce 95% of words and grade level comprehension questions at 90% * Instructional level: understand and pronounce 90% of words and grade level comprehension questions at least 60% * Frustration level: cannot understand at least 90% and 60% of grade-level comprehension questions (this level is damaging to a student's self-esteem and the development of literacy)

Scaffolding (p. 48)

* Instructional scaffolding: students receive occasional but timely support with eventual goal of student independence. * Procedural scaffolding: students are placed in different grouping configurations till they can be individually proficient

Modeling, phrase-cued reading, and intentional, teacher-directed instruction (p. 55)

* Modeling: demonstration of the task to be learned (repeated reading, choral reading) * Phrase-cued reading: the teacher reads a text, which is visible to the class, in phrase-sized chunks while pointing them out * Intentional, teacher directed instruction: happens in respect to specific subject areas in order to build content knowledge and academic skill

Word logs (p. 56 - 57)

Can be teacher and/or student driven. Helps to personalize vocabulary instruction.

Class discussion (p. 35)

Class discussions should be teacher led and held right after a text is read to solidify understanding. text-to-self text-to-text text-to-world connections Requires critical and creative thinking

Cognitive academic language learning (p. 47)

Cognitive academic language learning approach: Assumes that learning is an active and dynamic process and teaches explicit learning strategies. Also called the metacognitive learning strategy (think about thinking). Students are told explicitly about learning objectives and help to develop the structure of the lesson to meet these objectives.

Sound blending skills (p. 31)

Combining disparate phonemes to create a word

Informal assessment (p. 25)

Contribute generally to the teacher's understanding of the student's strengths and weaknesses. Includes any observation that does not generate a concrete score

Developing sound matching skills (p. 31)

Identification of identical phonemes, i.e. apple, pear, and peach all have /p/ in common

Sound segmentation skills (p. 32)

Identifying all the component phonemes in a word

Sound isolation skills (p. 31)

Identifying the component sounds in a word

Sound deletion skills (p. 32)

Identifying what happens when a phoneme is deleted from a word (introduce with blends so there is less of a change in the word, i.e. glade -> lade)

KWL charts (p. 36)

Improves reading comprehension and textual analysis What do we know What do we want to know What have we learned

Promoting phonemic awareness (p. 32)

In early stages, use intuitive understanding of rhyme, also alliteration, and assonance (repetition of a vowel sound)

Self-monitoring and reading comprehension (p. 35)

Includes relating sentences, paragraphs, and chapters to one another, weighing the argument or style of the author, and evaluating the message in its totality. Students should: be able to paraphrase without referencing the text when comprehension is low, slow down

Word Walls (p. 46)

Instructional method for phonetic state of spelling development. Can be structured like a word family, i.e. on large paper, write chair. Below it write -air. Then air, pair, stair, fair, etc.

* Inferential comprehension (p. 33)

Intermediate comprehension skill Understanding the of the implicit elements of the text. Same four component skills as literal comprehension but relies on the perception of implied ideas and events.

Cognitive approaches (p. 48)

Makes students more active in their own learning. Constantly connecting current and prior knowledge, making connections, summarizing. Students are often referred to reference materials to aid learning

Matthew effect (p. 53)

More advanced students advance more quickly than struggling students. Effective instruction and intervention can minimize the damage

Phonemic instruction for ELL (p. 42)

Most phonemes will be the same and won't require direct instruction and can be taught as to native speakers

Synonyms and antonyms (p. 56)

Once definitions have been introduced, guided cautious introduction of synonyms and antonyms

Spelling assessments (p. 47)

Should focus on language as it is used in context. Focus should be on how a spelling error was made. Is a student consistently mixing up the same vowel sounds? Is a misspelled word an exception to a rule?

Assessing vocabulary (p. 57)

Should take place before, during, and after instruction. * Ask students to make a sentence with new vocabulary words * Ask students to identify synonyms, antonyms, or analogies for new vocabulary (make sure answers are accessible - is there and antonym) *

Initial methods for letter recognition (p. 37)

Singing alphabet song (mnemonic) and pointing to the letters. Searching out specific letters in a story Alphabet books Flash cards

Problems learning phonetics (p. 42)

Sometimes ELL students may have trouble with phonics because of learned listening habits in primary language. This can make differentiating between certain consonant sound /v/, /w/, /b/ and vowel sounds problematic. This can be helped with rhyming and word families as well as greater exposure to spoken English

Print concept instruction (p. 38 - 39)

Special attention should be given to ELL students, especially those whose primary language has a different script than English. For example: English is opaque (the sound of each letter is not predictable) Spanish is transparent (the sound of each letter is predictable) Chinese languages logographic (pictures represent entire words)

Alphabetic principle (p. 30)

Specific sounds are consistently associated with specific letters

Importance of writing (p. 44)

Strong relationship between orthographic knowledge and word analysis.

Sight vocabulary assessment (p. 42)

Student should be presented with a word to read aloud both in and out of context

Word Banks (p. 46)

Students keep an on going list of word they spell incorrectly or find confusing. Personal dictionary

Student read aloud

Students must be ready to read at this level before reading aloud before the class otherwise it is just awkward.

Syllabic analysis (p. 43)

Syllabic analysis should cover multisyllabic words with the common syllable patterns with special instruction related to compound words such as butterfly, bookmark, mailbox. Syllables in larger words can be directly taught using songs

Syntax and comprehension (p. 34)

Syntax, the order of the words in a sentence, can facilitate or impede reading comprehension. Reading aloud for prosodic emphasis can help facilitate understanding of complex sentences.

Accuracy, rate, and prosody (p. 39)

Three interrelated indicators of reading fluency 1. Accuracy: correct decoding and recognition of words 2. Rate: speed at which words are recognized correctly 3. Prosody: the dramatic and artful reading style that improves the attention and understanding of the listener (appropriate stresses or emphases, varying pitch and intonation, and pausing at appropriate times - requires good knowledge of syntax and mechanics)

Tying curriculum to universals (p. 48)

Tie different content areas together using common vocabulary and overarching questions and themes

Sound blending, deletion, isolation, matching, and substitution (p. 28)

To test sound blending read one phoneme at a time and ask student to say the word at regular speed To assess the others, separate tests should be given for beginning, medial, and end phonemes.

Spelling test (p. 46)

Traditional spelling tests are often forgotten. To create more context, organize word lists by a pattern or theme that is related to other reading

Sound substitution skills (p. 32)

Transferring different phonemes into a given position in a word (song: Apples and Bananas)

Differentiation of word analysis instruction (p. 55)

Use of songs and poems to enforce syllabification. Extra training in roots, prefixes, and suffixes with flashcards

CLOZE tests (p. 37)

Used to determine if a content area textbook is at a student's reading level. Take at least a 275 word passage from any chapter except the first and word process it. The delete every fifth word. Have the students read it and try to fill in the missing word. If they get at least 40% exactly right then they can use the textbook successfully

Skills/Balanced approach (p. 26)

Utilizes a set of tools to help students decode simple text such as learning roots, prefixes, and suffixes or configuration. Builds large sight vocabulary Constant assessment is needed to make sure students are not overwhelmed