ASURE: Exam 2 Study Guide

What is the null hypothesis and why is it important?

Null Hypothesis: says the results were not due to the independent variable, but any difference between the two conditions was a function of chance alone

What is an operational definition?

Operational Definition: defines something specific, quantifiable terms, such that multiple individuals could agree on the measurement

What are the steps for creating a good operational definition?

1.) Clearly identify the concept or concept that you are investigating 2.) See what others have done. How have other researchers measured these same concepts? 3.) Select variables that are valid and reliably measure your concepts 4.) Determine quantitative measurements or indicators for those variables

What is the difference between a hypothesis and a prediction?

1.) Hypothesis is a statement that provides an answer to a proposed question using known facts and background research. Typically, hypotheses serve as starting points for further study. 2.) Predictions are statements that use existing data to forecast future events. Types of guesses, but they usually come directly from observations.

What are the steps for generating a great research question and how can you implement those steps?

1.) Look around the world 2.) Do some research 3.) Question like a scientist 4.) Know the difference between hypothesis and prediction 5.) Generate a FINER question

What are main effects? What are interaction effects?

1.) Main effect: The specific effect of a factor or independent variable regardless of other parameters in the experiment. 2.) Interaction effects: The simultaneous effect of two or more independent variables on at least one dependent variable in which their joint effect is significantly greater (or significantly less) than the sum of the parts.

What are the major milestones in psychological research ethics?

1.) Nuremberg Code 2.) Establishment of the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research 3.) Belmont Report

What types of questions make good research questions and how can you go from a good question to a FINER question?

1.) Questions of existence: Does this thing exist or happen? 2.) Questions of description and classification: What makes this thing unique? 3.) Questions of composition: What are the parts or stages of this thing? How is this built? 4.) Questions of relationship: Is there a relationship between these variables? 5.) Questions of causality: Does x cause (or increase the independence) of y? 6.) Questions of causal comparison: Which of these two manipulations is better/faster/stronger/safer? 7.) Questions of descriptive comparison: Which of these two things is better/faster/stronger/safer? 8.) Questions of mediation: What factors change or modify an outcome? F:Feasible I: Interesting N: Novel E: Ethical R: Relevant

What are reliability and validity?

1.) Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions). 2.) Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

What are the three Rs of animal research?

1.) Replacement: developing predictive and robust models and tools - without animals 2.) Reduction: minimizing the number of animals - appropriately designed and analyzed animal experiments 3.) Refinement: minimizing the pain, suffering, distress, or animal harm - improving understanding of the impact of welfare on scientific outcomes

In what ways is animal research helpful for human research?

1.) To Advance Scientific Understanding - Helps us to understand how living things work and apply that understanding for the benefit of both humans and non-humans animals 2.) To Develop and Test Potential Forms of Treatment - Applied research process 3.) To protect the safety of people, animals, and the environment

How can a lack of diversity or a lack of perspectives result in unintentional hardships for underrepresented populations? Be able to provide examples.

A lack of diversity or lack of perspectives result in unintentional hardships because we can only ask questions base don what I know and we can only present solutions based on the understanding of the world. safety in vehicles, apple voice recognition

What is a quasi-experimental design?

A quasi-experimental design attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship by using criteria other than randomization.

What makes an experimental design "experimental"?

A true experimental design relies on testing the relationships between and among variables; generally speaking an independent variable and dependent variables.

What was the Tuskegee Experiment and how does it connect to the Belmont Report?

African American men in Tuskegee in the 1930s who had syphilis were purposefully and unknowingly left untreated so doctors could study the progression of the disease Nearly a year later after the Experiment ended in 1974: The establishment of the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research leading to the creation of the Belmont Report in 1978

How do correlations relate to predictions?

Correlations, observed patterns in the data, are the only type of data produced by observational research. Correlations make it possible to use the value of one variable to predict the value of another.

What are the two broad categories of statistics?

Descriptive Statistics: organize, summarize and describe a group of numbers Inferential Statistics: use data from a small group of people ( a sample ) to make generalizations/inferences about a larger group of people ( population )

What is a factorial design?

Factorial designs allow the effects of a factor to be estimated at several levels of the other factors, yielding conclusions that are valid over a range of experimental conditions

What are the APA's five guiding principles and how do they connect to the Belmont Report?

Five Guiding Principles 1.) Beneficence and Nonmaleficence 2.) Fidelity and Responsibility: upholding professional standards / best practices 3.) Integrity: fair and unbiased / avoiding all fraud and manipulation / transparent/respectful / providing credit for collaborators 4.) Justice 5.) Respect for Persons

How does diversity help science?

Groups composed of people with diverse experiences and areas of expertise tend to be more creative and innovative. Asking questions drives science forward, and scientists with different perspectives often ask different questions.

What makes correlations different from experiments?

In an experimental design, you manipulate an independent variable and measure its effect on a dependent variable. Other variables are controlled so they cannot impact the results. In a correlational design, you measure variables without manipulating any of them.

What are independent variables, dependent variables, and confounding variables?

Independent: the variable that the research manipulates Dependent: the variable that is being measured Confounding: a third variable that influences both the independent and dependent variables.

What is the IRB?

Institutional Review Board: Committees are established at research institutions to review, approve and monitor ongoing research activities to ensure that they meet ethical standards

What is a p value and what does it tell us about the research and/or null hypotheses?

P-Value: the probability that we would have gotten results at least as extreme as our actual experimental results if we first assume that the null hypothesis is true

What are the central pillars of the Belmont Report?

Pillars of the Belmont Report: 1.) Respect for persons: requirement to acknowledge autonomy & to protect those with diminished autonomy 2.) Beneficence: do no harm & maximize possible benefits and minimize potential harms 3.) Justice: fairness (equals ought to be treated equally)

What is a population? What is a sample?

Population: all possible people, animals, observations, etc. that we would like to know something about Sample: a set of observations that are randomly pulled from the population of interest that represents the entire population

Why are the pros and cons of correlational studies?

Pros More applicable Offers beneficial starting point for research Determine direction and strength of the relationship Easy to classify Cons Only uncovers relationships Will not determine most valuable variables Time-consuming process Extraneous variable may interfere

What are the pros and cons of experimental designs?

Pros: High level of control No limit to the subject matter Experiment can be duplicated Provides specific conclusions Cons: Highly subjective due to human error Create unrealistic situations Time-consuming process Does not provide an actual conclusion

What does it mean to reject the null hypothesis? What does it mean to fail to reject the null hypothesis?

Rejecting the null hypothesis shows our experimental difference would be very unlikely to come about if the null hypothesis were true Failing to reject the null hypothesis cannot rule out the null hypothesis as one possible explanation for our data

How does "respect for persons" play out in a psychological experiment?

Respect for persons: requirement to acknowledge autonomy & to protect those with diminished autonomy -Required is voluntary, well-informed, understanding consent of the human subject in all capacities -Human subjects are allowed to leave at any point

How can researchers set up experiments to try to avoid confounds?

The ideal way to minimize the effects of confounding is to conduct a large randomized clinical trial so that each subject has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the treatment options.

What are the three possible causal relationships that can result in a correlation?

Three Causal Explanations: 1.) A could cause B 2.) B could cause A 3.) Third factor, C could be causing A and also causing B

How do we measure and describe correlations?

We can measure and describe a correlation through its direction (positive or negative) and strength (weak, moderate, strong)

What is the correlation coefficient and what can you tell from its value?

r, describes both the direction and strength of the correlation from -1 to +1.