Atoms, nuclear decay, electronic structure, and atomic chemical behavior
Alkali metals-Key Points
Alkali metals have a single valence electron They have low ionization energy, low electron affinity, and low electronegativity They want to lose an electron to achieve empty valence shell Highly reactive Most commonly have an oxidation state of +1
Alkaline earth metals: their chemical characteristics
Alkaline earth metals are elements found in group IIA that share properties characteristic of metals but form hydroxides when reacted with water and ions with a +2 oxidation state.
Alkaline earth metals: their chemical characteristics-Key Points
Alkaline earth metals have two valence electrons They have low ionization energy, low electron affinity, and low electronegativity They are highly reactive and often form divalent cations They are good conductors of electricity Alkaline earth metals have an oxidation state of +2
Alkali metals
An alkali metal is an element present in group 1A of the periodic table defined by their reactivity and having one valence electron.
Transition metals
Form complex ions combine with water to form hydration complexes such as CuSO4*5H20 or with nonmetals (such as Co(NH3)6Cl. These complexes effect solubility. The formation of the complexes causes the d-orbital to split into two energy levels-those containing the precise amount of energy required to raise electrons form the lower to the higher energy d orbitals. The frequency not absorbed (known as the subtraction frequency) give the complexes their characteristic colors. When an object appears a specific color, it is because that color is not absorbed only reflected by the object. If an object absorbs a given color of light and reflects all others, our brain mixes these subtraction frequencies and we perceive the complementary color of frequency that was absorbed. For example, carotene is a photosynthetic pigment that strongly absorbs blue light but reflects other colors. Our brains interpret carotene as the result of white light minus blue light, which is yellow light. More about this in the Berkeley Review book.
Halogens: their chemical characteristics
Halogens are nonmetallic elements found in group VIIA forming -1 ions and having a valency of 7.
Halogens: their chemical characteristics
Halogens are nonmetallic elements found in group VIIA forming -1 ions and having a valency of 7. Halogens include fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine, iodine (I), astatine (At), and tennessine (Ts). Halogens are highly reactive and have seven valence electrons. These elements are constantly trying to complete their octets by gaining one additional electron. They are reactive toward alkali and alkaline earth metals. They are often found in nature as ions (halides) or diatomic molecules. Halogens have high electronegativity, ionization energy, and electron affinity. They have an oxidation state of -1 and an electronic structure characterised by the P orbital containing 5 electrons so commonly they have the electronic structure Xp5 and can readily accept 1 electron to form a full outer shell. At standard conditions, the halogens range from gaseous (F2 and Cl2) to liquid (Br2) to solid (I2) forms. Fluorine has the highest electronegativity of any element. They are very reactive and rarely found in their elemental state. Found as ions (halides) or diatomic molecules.
Halogens: their chemical characteristics-Key Points
Halogens have 7 valence electrons (2 in s shell and 5 in p shell) They often react with alkali and alkaline earth metals to form salts High in electronegativity, electron affinity, and ionization energy They have an oxidation state of -1.
Metals and Non-metals
Metals and non-metals differ in chemical and physical properties.
Metals and Non-metals
Metals are found on the left side and in the middle of the period table. With the exception of mercury, which is a liquid under standard conditions, metals are shiny solids. Metals have high melting points and densities. There are exceptions such as lithium that has a density about half that of water. They are highly malleable (hammered into shapes) and have high ductility (pulled and drawn into wires). They have low effective nuclear charge, low electronegativity, a large atomic radius, small ionic radius, and low ionization energy. Metals have the ability to easily give up electrons. They are good conductors of heat and electricity because their valence electrons are free to move. They include the active metals, transition metals, and the lanthanide and actinide series of elements.
Metals and Non-metals-Key Points
Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity because they do not easily give up electrons Non-metals have high ionization energy, high electron affinity, and high electronegativity Non-metals have small atomic radii and large ionic radii
Metals and Non-metals-Key Points
Metals are solids under standard conditions, except for mercury Metals have high melting points and densities Metals are highly malleable and have high ductility Metals have low effective nuclear charge, low electronegativity, and low ionization energy Metals have a large atomic radius and small ionic radius
Noble gases:their physical and chemical characteristics-Key Points
Noble gases are colorless, odorless, tasteless, and non-flammable under standard conditions They have low melting and boiling points They have an oxidation state of 0
Noble gases:their physical and chemical characteristics
Noble gases are the gaseous elements that occupy group VIIIA and are characteristically interactive due to a full valence shell.
Metals and Non-metals
Non-metals are found on the upper right side of the period table. Non-metals have high ionization energy, high electron affinity, and high electronegativity. They have small atomic radii and large ionic radii. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. They do not easily give up electrons.
Metals and Non-metals
Non-metals are found on the upper right side of the period table. Non-metals have high ionization energy, high electron affinity, and high electronegativity. They have small atomic radii and large ionic radii. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. They do not easily give up electrons. Nonmetals are generally brittle in the solid state and show little to no metallic luster.
Representative elements
Non-representative (B) elements include the transition elements, which have valence electrons in the s and d shells, and the lanthanide and actinide series, which have valence electrons in the s and f shells. They have unexpected electron configurations. As an example, chromium and copper are 4s13d5 and 4s13d10 respectively.
Halogens: their chemical characteristics-Key Terms
Oxidation state: a number assigned to an element in chemical combination which represents the number of electrons lost Electronic structure: the descriptive numerical assignments to electrons in different energy levels and spin states in an atom Alkaline earth metals: any of the elements beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium, occupying Group IIA (2) of the periodic table Alkali: consist of the chemical elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr) they constitute group 1
Oxygen (Chalcogens VIA)
Oxygen and sulfur are chemically similar because sulfur is directly below oxygen in the periodic table. These elements have similar electron configurations. As a result, sulfur forms many compounds that are analogues of oxygen compounds.
Oxygen (Chalcogens VIA)
Oxygen is the most important element in this group for many reasons; it is one of the primary constituents of water, carbohydrates, and other biological molecules. Sulfur is also an important component of certain amino acids and vitamins. Selenium is an important nutrient for microorganisms and has a role in protection from oxidative stress.
Representative elements-Key Points
Representative elements include the s and p block Non-representative elements exist in the d and f block They often have unexpected electron configurations
Metalloids
Separating the metals and nonmetals are a stair step group of elements called the metalloids. The metalloids are also called semimetals because they share some characteristics with both metals and nonmetals. The electronegativities and ionization energies of the metalloids lie between those of metals and nonmetals. Their physical properties densities, melting points, and boiling points vary widely and can be combinations of metallic and nonmetallic characteristics. For example, silicon (Si) has a metallic luster but is brittle and a poor conductor. The reactivities of metalloids are dependent upon the elements with which they are reacting. Boron (B) for example, behaves like a nonmetal when reacting with sodium (Na) and like a metal when reacting with fluorine (F). They include: Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic, Antimony, Tellurium, Polonium, and Astatine.
Alkali metals
The alkali metals are lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). Alkali metals are very reactive which is why they are very rarely found by themselves as a single element. They form strong bases with water capable of neutralizing acids. Alkali metals have high thermal and electrical conductivity. They have one valence electron in its outermost shell. They are most commonly found with an oxidation state of +1. They also have low ionization energy, low electron affinity, and low electronegativity. Alkali metals easily lose one electron to form univalent cations and react readily with nonmetals and all have 1 electron in the s subshell having the common electronic structure Xs1, where X is the period the element is in. Have low density. Most are stored in mineral oil due to their high reactivity with water and air. See jackwestin.com for periodic table.
Alkaline earth metals: their chemical characteristics
The alkaline earth metals include beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra). Alkaline earth metals have two valence electrons. They are highly reactive and are not found naturally in their elemental state. The two valence electrons are easily removed to form divalent cations. Alkaline earth metals are good conductors of electricity. They are low in ionization energy, low in electron affinity, and low electronegativity. Alkaline earth metals have an oxidation state of +2 and an electronic structure in the S subshell occupied by 2 electrons, denoted as Xs2. Referred to as the active metals in addition to the alkali metals due to their reactivity.
Noble gases:their physical and chemical characteristics
The noble gases include helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), radon (Rn), and oganesson (Og). The physical properties of noble gases are as follows; they are colorless, odorless, tasteless, and non-flammable under standard conditions. Noble gases have very low melting and boiling points. They are non-reactive in their natural state and commonly known as inert gases. They have a full valence shell of electrons and an oxidation state of 0. They have high ionization energies and no measurable electronegativities. Exist as gases at room temperature. Commonly used as lighting sources due to the lack of reactivity.
Oxygen (Chalcogens VIA)
The oxygen group elements are also known as chalcogens. The elements are oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), polonium (Po), and livermorium (Li). This group contains non-metals and metalloids. Each element in this group has six valence electrons and have small atomic radii and large ionic radii. Many of these elements at high concentrations are metallic, toxic or damaging.
Oxygen (Chalcogens VIA)-Key Points
The oxygen group is also known as chalcogens. Each element in this group has six valence electrons They have small atomic radii and large ionic radii Oxygen and sulfur are very similar
Oxygen (Chalcogens VIA)
The oxygen group is the VIA group on the periodic table that contains oxygen.
Representative elements
The representative (A) elements are the A elements found in groups IA - VIIIA. Representative elements have their valence electrons in orbitals of either s or p shells. The roman numeral and the letter designation determine the electron configuration. As an example, an element in Group VA has five valence electrons with the configuration s2p3.
Transition metals
Transition metals are metallic elements in groups IB - VIIIB characterised by metallic bonding, coloured compounds, varying oxidation states and catalytic ability.
Transition metals
Transition metals have high electric conductivity due to the free flowing outer d-orbital electrons. They have low electron affinity, low ionization energy, and low electronegativity. They have high melting and boiling points. Transition metals have different possible oxidation states because they are capable of losing different numbers of electrons from the s- and d-orbitals in their valence shells. One example is the element copper (Cu). It can exist in either the +1 or +2 oxidation state. Manganese (Mn) can exist in the +2, +3, +4, +6, or +7 oxidation state. These different oxidation states often allow these elements to have vibrant colors when forming compounds and form many different ionic compounds. Transition metals and their complexes are also commonly used as catalysts.
Transition metals-Key Points
Transition metals have high electric conductivity; but they have low electron affinity, low electronegativity, and low ionization energy They have high melting and boiling points. They are very hard. Transition metals have different possible oxidation states because of the different number of valence electrons in the s- and d- orbitals
Halogens: their chemical characteristics-Key Terms
Valence electron: an outer shell electron that can participate in chemical bonds Ionization energy: the energy required to remove an electron from the valence shell of a gaseous atom Electron affinity: the energy change that occurs when an atom gains an electron Electronegativity: a measure of the ability of an atom to attract the electrons in a bond
Alkaline earth metals: their chemical characteristics-Key Terms
Valence electron: an outer shell electron that can participate in chemical bonds Ionization energy: the energy required to remove an electron from the valence shell of a gaseous atom Electron affinity: the energy change that occurs when an atom gains an electron Electronegativity: a measure of the ability of an atom to attract the electrons in a bond Oxidation state: a number assigned to an element in chemical combination which represents the number of electrons lost Electronic structure: the descriptive numerical assignments to electrons in different energy levels and spin states in an atom
Oxygen (Chalcogens VIA)
atomic radius: the average distance between a nucleus and its outermost electron ionic radii: the average distance from the center of the nucleus to the edge of its electron cloud metalloid: an element that has properties that are intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals nonmetal: is a chemical element that mostly lacks the characteristics of a metal analogues: a compound having a structure similar to that of another compound, but differing from it in respect to a certain component
Representative elements-Key Terms
electron configuration: the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule in atomic or molecular orbitals roman numeral: any of the symbols used in a system of numerical notation based on the ancient Roman system valence electron: an outer shell electron that can participate in chemical bonds transition elements: any of the set of metallic elements occupying a central block (Groups IVB-VIII, IB, and IIB, or 4-12) in the periodic table actinide: a series of elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103, actinium through lawrencium lanthanide: consists of the 14 elements, with atomic numbers 58 through 71, that follow lanthanum on the periodic table of elements.
Metals and Non-metals-Key Terms
electronegativity: a measure of the ability of an atom to attract the electrons in a bond oxidation state: a number assigned to an element in chemical combination which represents the number of electrons lost atomic radius: the average distance between a nucleus and its outermost electron ionic radii: the average distance from the center of the nucleus to the edge of its electron cloud standard conditions: are standard sets of conditions for experimental measurements defined as a temperature of 273.15 K (0 °C, 32 °F) and an absolute pressure of exactly 1 atm melting point: the temperature at which an element will melt effective nuclear charge: the attractive positive charge of nuclear protons acting on valence electrons
Metals and Non-metals-Key Terms
malleability: the ability of a metal to be hammered into shapes ductility: the ability to be pulled or drawn into wires valence electron: an outer shell electron that can participate in chemical bonds ionization energy: the energy required to remove an electron from the valence shell of a gaseous atom electron affinity: the energy change that occurs when an atom gains an electron
Noble gases:their physical and chemical characteristics-Key Terms
melting point: the temperature at which an element will melt boiling point: the temperature at which an element will boil inert: unreactive valence electron: an outer shell electron that can participate in chemical bonds oxidation state: a number assigned to an element in chemical combination which represents the number of electrons lost standard conditions: are standard sets of conditions for experimental measurements defined as a temperature of 273.15 K (0 °C, 32 °F) and an absolute pressure of exactly 1 atm
Transition metals-Key Terms
oxidation state: a number assigned to an element in chemical combination which represents the number of electrons lost d-orbital electrons: electrons contained in the d orbital melting point: the temperature at which an element will melt boiling point: the temperature at which an element will boil catalyst: a substance that can be added to a reaction to increase the reaction rate
Alkali metals-Key Terms
oxidation state: a number assigned to an element in chemical combination which represents the number of electrons lost univalent: having one valence electron electronic structure: the descriptive numerical assignments to electrons in different energy levels and spin states in an atom
Alkali metals-Key Terms
valence electron: an outer shell electron that can participate in chemical bonds ionization energy: the energy required to remove an electron from the valence shell of a gaseous atom electron affinity: the energy change that occurs when an atom gains an electron electronegativity: a measure of the ability of an atom to attract the electrons in a bond
Transition metals-Key Terms
valence electron: an outer shell electron that can participate in chemical bonds ionization energy: the energy required to remove an electron from the valence shell of a gaseous atom electron affinity: the energy change that occurs when an atom gains an electron electronegativity: a measure of the ability of an atom to attract the electrons in a bond
