Attachment

For what percentage of infants does attachment change between 12 and 18 months?

38%. Shift from secure to insecure was associated with more stressful life events. There is less evidence of the shift between insecure to secure being associated with fewer stressful life events.

According to Bowlby how many stages of attachment are there?

4

Describe research by Kerns et al (2007).

9-11 year olds who are securely attached are more likely to report positive mood and to regulate their emotions using positive coping strategies.

Describe research by Granot and Mayseless (2001).

9-11 year olds who are securely attached are rated better on scholastics, emotional and social measures. They also showed fewer behavioural problems and were less likely to be rejected by their peers.

What is an internal working model of attachment?

A mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general. The child's mental representation of the self, of attachment figure(s), and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers. The working model guides children's interactions with caregivers and other. Encompasses memories of previous interactions and your expectations of future interactions.

What do interventions aim to do?

Aid adults in overcoming early adversity and insecure attachment; talk about negative childhood events in a coherent and contained manner; leads ti more positive parenting, even under high stress conditions (observational).

What is the usual outcome of these phases?

An enduring emotional tie uniting the infant and the caregiver.

Describe the second stage of attachment development.

Attachment-in-the-making (age 6 weeks to 6 to 8 months). During this phase, infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people. Typically they smile, laugh, or babble more frequently in the presence of their primary caregiver and are more easily soothed by that person. Like Freud and Erikson, Bowlby saw this phase as a time when infants form expectations about how their caregivers will respond to their needs and, accordingly, do or do not develop a sense of trust in them.

Describe a secure attachment.

Babies in this category use their mother as a secure base during the initial part of the session, leaving her side to explore the many toys available in the room. As they play with the toys, these infants occasionally look back to check on their mother or bring a toy over to show her. They are usually, but by no means always, distressed to some degree when their mother leaves the room, especially when they are left totally alone. However, when their mother returns, they make it clear that they are glad to see her, either by simply greeting her with a happy smile or, if they have been upset during her absence, by going to her to be picked up and comforted. If they have been upset, their mother's presence comforts and calms them, often enabling them to explore the room again. About 62% to 68% of typical middle-class children in the United States fall into this category; for infants from lower socioeconomic groups, the rate is significantly lower—slightly less than 50% for childen under 24 months of age (Thompson, 1998; van IJzendoorn, Schuengel, & Bakermans-Kranenberg, 1999).

According to Bowlby why do children attach?

Bowlby proposed that the attachment process between infant and caregiver is rooted in evolution and increases the infant's chance of survival. Just like imprinting, this attachment process develops from the interaction between species-specific learning biases (such as infants' strong tendency to look at faces) and the infant's experience with his or her caregiver.

Describe research about the effects of being securely attached?

Children who experience the sensitive, supportive parenting that is associated with secure attachment are likely to learn that it is acceptable to express emotions in an appropriate way and that emotional communication with others is important (Cassidy, 1994; Kerns, Abraham, Schlegelmilch, & Morgan, 2007; Sroufe, 1995). More likely to have harmonious relationships with peers than do insecurely attached children. For example, they are somewhat more regulated, sociable, and socially competent with peers (Lucas-Thompson & Clarke-Stewart, 2007; Troy & Sroufe, 1987; Vondra, Shaw, Swearingen, Cohen, & Owens, 2001) and, correspondingly, are less anxious (Dallaire & Weinraub, 2007), aggressive, and antisocial (DeMulder, Denham, Schmidt, & Mitchell, 2000; Madigan, Moran, Schuengel, Pederson, & Otten, 2007; NICDH Early Child Care Research Network, 2006).

Describe the third stage of attachment development.

Clear-cut attachment (between 6 to 8 months and 11⁄2 years of age). In this phase, infants actively seek contact with their regular caregivers. They happily greet their mother when she appears and, correspondingly, may exhibit separation anxiety or distress when she departs (see Chapter 10, page 389). For the majority of children, the mother now serves as a secure base, facilitating the infant's exploration and mastery of the environment.

Does the research involve correlations or causation?

Correlations; we cannot infer causation.

Describe a dismissing //avoidant// attachment.

Dismisses attachment relationships as little of concern, value or influence; poor recall; account can be inconsistent and contradictory.

Describe the Strange Situation test.

Experimenter introduces caregiver and infant to the unfamiliar room; shows toys to baby; then leaves. Caregiver and child are alone; caregiver is told not to initiate interaction but to respond to baby as appropriate. Stranger enters and is seated quietly for 1 minute; then talks to caregiver for 1 minute; then tries to interact with the baby for 1 minute. Mother leaves child alone with the stranger, who lets baby play but offers comfort if needed. Segment is shortened if the baby becomes too distressed. Caregiver calls to baby from outside door, enters the room, and pauses by the door. Stranger leaves. Caregiver lets infant play or may comfort infant if distressed. Parent leaves infant alone in the room. Segment is ended if infant is too distressed. Stranger enters room, greets infant, and pauses. She sits or comforts infant if the infant is upset. Segment is ended if the infant is very upset. Caregiver calls from outside the door, enters and greets infant and pauses. Caregiver sits if infant is not upset but may provide comfort if infant is distressed. Caregiver allows infant to return to play if interested.

Describe the work of Harlow et al (1959) and how it contributed to the field of attachment research.

Harlow and his colleagues (Harlow & Harlow, 1965; Harlow & Zimmerman, 1959; Young, Suomi, Harlow, & McKinney, 1973) reared infant rhesus monkeys in isolation from birth, comparing their development with that of monkeys reared normally with their mothers. The isolated babies were well fed and kept healthy, but they had no exposure to their mother or other monkeys. When they finally were placed with other monkeys six months later, they exhibited severe social disturbances. They compulsively bit and rocked themselves and avoided other monkeys completely, apparently incapable of communicating with others. As adults, the females showed no interest in sex and did not know what to do with their babies when artificially inseminated. Healthy social and emotional development is rooted in early interactions and attachment to adults.

Describe an unresolved //disorganised// attachment.

Have experienced a trauma or early death of an attachment figure; have not come to terms with this; account may not make sense and lack reasoning.

What does a mindful mother talk about?

Her child's mental states. "Who do you think that is?" "Who's that in there?"

Describe a preoccupied //ambivalent// attachment.

Intensely focused on parents; gives confused and angry accounts; caught up on memory; not coherent.

How does attachment style in infancy relate to adult attachment?

It generally acts as a predictor. The attachment style of an adult affects how they interact with their own infant.

Who proposed attachment theory?

John Bowlby.

Describe research into the genetic base of attachment.

O'Connor & Croft (2001) found concordant attachment styles in 70% of MZ and 64% of DZ twins. 15% of the variance was due to genetics, but this means that 85% is due to the environment.

What did Vaughn et al (1979) find about the importance of life events in attachment.

Mothers of secure infants reported fewer stressful events than mothers of insecure children.

How did Ainsworth expand the research?

On the basis of her observations, she came to the conclusion that two key measures provide insight into the quality of the infant's attachment to the caregiver: (1) the extent to which an infant is able to use his or her primary caregiver as a secure base; and (2) how the infant reacts to brief separations from, and reunions with, the caregiver.

What is parental sensitivity (Ainsworth et al, 1978)?

One key aspect of parental sensitivity is consistently responsive caregiving.

Describe an insecure attachment.

One type of insecurely attached infant is classified as insecure/resistant, or ambivalent. Infants in this category are often clingy from the beginning of the Strange Situation, staying close to the mother instead of exploring the toys. When the mother leaves the room, they tend to get very upset, often crying intensely. In the reunion, the insecure/ resistant infant typically reestablishes contact with the mother, only to then rebuff her efforts at offering comfort. For example, the infant may rush to the mother bawling, with outstretched arms, signaling the wish to be picked up and then, as soon as he or she is picked up, arch away from the mother or begin squirming to get free from her embrace. About 9% of typical middle-class children in the United States fall into the insecure/resistant category, but the percentage appears to be somewhat higher in many non-Western cultures (van IJzendoorn et al., 1999).

Describe research about the association between maternal sensitivity and infant attachment.

Particularly striking is the finding that infants whose mothers are insensitive show only a 38% rate of secure attachment, which is much lower than the typical rate (van IJzendoorn & Sagi, 1999). An association between fathers' sensitivity and the security of their children's attachment has also been found, though it is somewhat weaker than that for mothers (van IJzendoorn & De Wolff, 1997); and the relation between maternal sensitivity and security of attachment may be somewhat weaker in low-income families than in higher income families (Nievar & Becker, 2007).

Describe the first stage of attachment development.

Preattachment (birth to age 6 weeks). In this phase, the infant produces innate signals, most notably crying, that summon caregivers, and the infant is comforted by the ensuing interaction.

Describe an autonomous //secure// attachment.

Recalls earlier attachment related experiences openly and objectively; sees them as important; coherent and consistent.

Describe the fourth stage of attachment development.

Reciprocal relationships (from 11⁄2 or 2 years of age on). During this final phase, toddlers' rapidly increasing cognitive and language abilities enable them to understand their parents' feelings, goals, and motives and to use this understanding to organize their efforts to be near their parents. As a result, a more mutually regulated relationship gradually emerges as the child takes an increasingly active role in developing a working partnership with his or her parents (Bowlby, 1969). Correspondingly, separation distress declines.

Does secure attachment predict later relationships?

Secure attachment in infancy even predicts positive peer and romantic relationships and emotional health in adolescence (Carlson, Sroufe, & Egeland, 2004; Collins, Hennighausen, Schmit, & Sroufe, 1997).

Do securely or insecurely attached children grow up to better adjusted and more socially skilled?

Securely attached children.

Describe research by Meins et al (2001).

The amount of mind-related comments that mothers made about their infants when playing with them at 6 months predicted attachment security at 12 months. This is independent of the influence of maternal sensitivity on attachment style.

How do the mothers of insecure children behave?

The mothers of insecure/resistant infants tend to be inconsistent in their early caregiving: they sometimes respond promptly to their infants' distress, but sometimes they do not. These mothers often seem highly anxious and overwhelmed by the demands of caregiving. Mothers of insecure/avoidant infants tend to be indifferent and emotionally unavailable, sometimes rejecting their baby's attempts at physical closeness (Isabella, 1993).

How do the mothers of securely attached children act?

The mothers of securely attached 1-year-olds tend to read their babies' signals accurately, responding quickly to the needs of a crying baby and smiling back at a beaming one. Positive exchanges between mother and child, such as mutual smiling and laughing, making sounds at one another, or engaging in coordinated play, are a characteristic of sensitive parenting that may be particularly important in promoting secure attachment (De Wolff & van IJzendoorn, 1997; Nievar & Becker, 2007)

Describe an avoidant attachment.

The other type of insecurely attached infant is classified as insecure/avoidant. Children in this category tend to avoid their mother in the Strange Situation. For example, they often fail to greet her during the reunions and ignore her or turn away while she is in the room. Approximately 15% of typical middle-class children fall into the insecure/avoidant category (van IJzendoorn et al., 1999).

What is a secure base?

The parent is a secure base. We use the secure base as a safety net so that we can explore the environment and become competent.

What is intergenerational transfer?

The transfer of attachments.

Describe mind-mindedness (Meins et al, 2001).

This involves treating the infant as an individual with a mind, not just a creature which needs to be satisfied. It reflects sensitivity to an infant's mental states rather than a general sensitivity to infant behaviour.

How is adult attachment measured?

Through an Adult Attachment Interview which explores their internal working model of their childhood attachments. The focus is not on the experiences themselves but how the adult reflects on them.

Does evidence suggest that the parents of secure children behave differently?

Yes.