Bio 1113: Midterm 3
alleles
Homologous chromosomes are similar to each other but not identical because while they have the same genes, they may have different ________________.
the result of the cross between round and wrinkled pure breed cell lines was all round seeds in the first generation of offspring, not partially wrinkled as the blending hypothesis would predict
How did Mendel's monohybrid cross with round and wrinkled seeds directly contradict the blending hypothesis?
dihybrid; both parents are heterozygous for both genes
9:3:3:1 ratio indicated a _________________ cross. A phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 in the offspring of a cross indicates that _____.
gametes; BRCA1; breast
Accumulation of Cell Changes More likely to get certain types of cancer if parents already had some mutation in _________________ (takes fewer mutations to get to point of cancerous growth). Ex: family history of ______________ mutation in gene increases likelihood of ______________ cancer (does not guarantee cancer).
dihybrid cross
A cross between individuals that have different alleles for the same gene
3' UCA 5'
A particular triplet of bases in the template strand of DNA is 5' AGT 3'. The corresponding codon for the mRNA transcribed is _____.
breed true
A phenotype for a simply-inherited trait is said to breed true if two parents with that phenotype produce offspring of that same phenotype exclusively.
synthase; ETC; 2; 1; photosystems
ATP _________________ phosphorylates ADP. The energy released as electrons are passed along the ______________ is used to pump protons into the thylakoid compartment. Photosystem _______ splits water into 1/2 O2, H+, and e- . Energized electrons from photosystem _______ are used to reduce NADP+. The ______________________ contain chlorophyll.
more than one
As a result of alternative splicing, most protein-coding genes can encode ______ protein. Yes, alternative splicing makes it possible to have different combinations of exons spliced together from the same primary mRNA transcript. This allows one gene to code for different mRNAs.
cohesin
At the beginning of mitosis, sister chromatids are held together by ________________ proteins.
DNA is copied (and protein filaments attach); copies separate (and ring of protein forms); membrane is pulled inward (by protein ring); fission is complete
Bacterial Cell Division 1. 2. 3. 4.
binary fission; circular
Bacterial cells undergo ________________ ________________ instead of mitosis; biggest differences have to do with having a _________________ chromosome, rather than linear ones.
DNA; centrosomes
Before mitosis, not only is ____________ replicated, but so are _____________________ (organizing centers for the microtubules of the spindle apparatus).
signaling
Cancer usually involves problems with multiple cell ___________________ pathways (angiogenesis, metastasis, increased division all due to changes in signaling).
hot/dry; dry; O2; increases; separating; CO2; CO2; spatially; temporally
C4 and CAM Plants Most problematic for plants in _______________ environments. Pores in leaf allow gases to diffuse --> closed when _________ --> _________ accumulates --> ___________________ photorespiration. Some plants get around this by __________________ carbon fixation from calvin cyle, essentially stockpiling __________. Attach CO2 to a 3-carbon compound, then release __________ as needed. Either ________________ separated from calvin cycle (C4 plants, such as corn) or __________________ separated (CAM plants, such as cacti).
stroma; CO2; sugar; 2; ATP; NADPH; G3P; sugar; fixation; reduction; regeneration
Calvin Cycle Has three phases (all in ______________). _____________ fixed to 5-carbon _______________, immediately splits into ________ 3-carbon sugars. Energy comes in via __________ and _______________ to form ____________, some leaves cycle. Most G3P continues cycle to reform 5-carbon ________________. Three phases of the Calvin Cycle: ______________________ (of CO2), ________________________ (of 3PGA to G3P), _______________________ (of RuBP from G3P).
carbon dioxide, ATP, NADPH; G3P, ADP, NADP+
Calvin Cycle Inputs: Outputs:
one; same; uncontrolled cell division; loss of control of cell differentiation
Cancer Normal cells --> carefully controlled cell division. Most cells (except blood) stay in ___________ place ad keep the ____________ basic form (ex: nerve cell). Two basic characteristics of all cancers:
genetic; epigenetic; carcinogens
Cancer Causes Caused by _______________ mutations and _________________ chagnes to certain types of genes. Causes of mutations are also things that lead to cancer (ex: __________________). Include: certain viruses, chemicals, radiation, dietary, and environmental factors.
dividing; vinblastine; mitosis; mass; antiangiogenic; immunotherapy; defenses; gene; two
Cancer Treatments Some treatments target ________________ cells. Chemotherapy -- ex: __________________ and _______________. Others target cell ___________. Ex: radiation/surgery. ______________________ drugs. Some new therapies help the immune system (______________________). Many cancers develop ________________ against immune system. _____________ therapy -- ____________ approved for cancer.
encroaches; over; types; where; hormones
Cancer causes health effects because, as it grows, it ____________________ on other cells/tissues, stealing resources and blocking normal body functions of those tissues. Conversely, may cause ___________-activeness of organ it affects. Effects depend on which cell ___________ are dividing abnormally and _______________. Ex: overproduction of ____________________ in organs that produce them.
uncontrolled; differentiation
Cancer cells are characterized by their differences from normal cells: they have _____________________ cell division and have lost control of cellular _____________________.
mutations; epigenetic
Cancer is caused by ___________________ or ___________________ changes in certain genes (not just any gene).
metastasized; angiogenesis
Cancers that are particularly advanced may have ______________________ (moved to other parts of the body) or undergone _______________________ (fooled the body into growing the cancer its own blood supply).
B, most cat cells will contain 38 alleles
Cats have 19 pairs of chromosomes. Which of the following is not true based on this? A: an egg from a cat will contain 19 chromosomes B: most cat cells will contain 38 alleles C: a diploid cat cell will contain 38 alleles D: the n for cats is 19 and the 2n is 38 E: all of the above are true
grow; duplicate; chromatids; interphase; interphase; non-dividing
Cell Division Before any division, cell must: _____________, __________________ DNA (identical copies referred to as __________________). Cell growth and DNA duplication --> ____________________. Vast majority of most cells' life spent in ___________________ or in a ____________________ stage (G0) (variation in amount of division).
2; 2; homologous; size; location; alleles; diploid; haploid
Cell Division and Chromosomes _______ of each chromosomes --> potentially _______ different alleles for any gene. A pair of _____________________ chromosomes are the same ___________, have the same set of genes at the same _____________________, but may have different _________________ for the genes. ______________ cells have full set of pairs of homologous chromosomes (2n). ______________ cells only have one of each chromosome (n). Sperm and eggs, but also some organisms haploid.
stimulated; cyclin; Cdk; signals
Cell division can also be ___________________. Ex: MPF is composed of ______________ (a protein whose concentration peaks at the beginning of cell division) and ____________ (a kinase that phosphorylates proteins involved in cell division). MPF and other cell cycle control signals are in turn controlled by ______________ from other cells.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + about 29 ATP; 6CO2 + 6H2O --light--> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Cellular Respiration formula: Photosynthesis formula:
meiosis 1; mitosis; meiosis II
Chiasma form during ________________ _______ but not during mitosis. The sister chromatids of replicated chromosomes separate during both ______________ and _____________ ______.
genes; 2; more; 2
Chromosomes A chromosomes has many ______________ -- pair of each chromosome --> two copies of every gene (up to _______ different alleles). Many genes have ____________ than two possible alleles, but an individual can only inherit _______ alleles for the gene.
mutations; more
Chromosomes (Cancer) This loss of control is caused by _________________ in the genes regulating cell division. Lack of control of cell division also leads to ____________ mutations.
prophase
Chromosomes condense. Form structural elements (spindle apparatus). Chromosomes condense, and spindle apparatus begins to form.
metaphase (phase)
Chromosomes line up along center of cell. One chromatid on each side of center (Ex: metaphase plate). Chromosomes complete migration to middle of cell. Astrial microtubules. Polar microtubules. Kinetochore microtubules.
carbon dioxide; cytoplasm; same
Conserving water simultaneously reduces the amount of _______________ ________________ available to the plant. In C4 and CAM plants carbon dioxide fixation occurs in the ___________________. In C3 and CAM plants carbon dioxide fixation and the Calvin cycle occur in the ______________ cells.
stimulated; intiates; two; Cyclin; Cdk; inhibitory
Control of Mitosis Can also be ________________. M phase-promoting factor (MPF) ______________ cell division. Inject MPF into a cell in interphase --> can jumpstart cell division. Composed of __________ proteins. _____________: a regulatory protein, concentration peaks at beginning of M phase. ___________: a kinase that phosphorylates proteins involved in onset of cell division. Catalyzes phosphorylation of other proteins to start M phase. Cdk is the ________________ phpsphorylation site.
two; growth; cyclin; E2F; Rb; Cdk; E2F
Control of Mitosis MPF regulated in multiple ways. ___________ phosphorylation sites -- 1 stimulates, 1 inhibits. Other cells can produce ______________ factors. Stimulate _____________ production. Stimulate ___________ production. E2F normally inactivated by _________; Rb phosphorylated by ____________, releasing ___________.
controlled; cell size is adequate, nutrients are sufficient, social signals are present, and DNA is undamaged; chromosomes have replicated successfully, DNA is undamaged, and activated MPF is present; chromosomes have attached to spindle apparatus, and chromosomes have properly segregated and MPF is absent; G0
Control of Mitosis Whether mitosis occurs or not is very strictly _________________. Slowed/halted at several checkpoints (if problems). G1/S: pass checkpoint if... G2/M: pass checkpoint if... M: pass checkpoints if... Mature cells do not pass G1 checkpoint again, they enter __________ state.
meiosis 1
Crossing over normally takes place during which of the following processes?
huntington disease; nerve; death; 30s
Dominant Genetic Disorders _____________________ ___________________: dominant lethal genetic disorder. Defective dominant allele: causes _______________ degeneration that leads to mental and physical deterioration, ultimately ______________. Non-defective allele: normal development. Symptoms start in ___________, most don't live past 40s to 50s.
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-bio-modelbox-tips-on-drawing-forked-line-diagrams
Drawing forked-line diagrams:
principle of segregation
During meiosis, chromosome pairs separate into different gametes such that each of the two alleles for a given trait appears in a different gamete. Separation of alleles during gamete formation.
unique; two; three
Each of the chromosomes in the cell is a different length so you can infer that each has _______________ genetic information. 2n = 6 means that there are six chromosomes total, _________ each of _____________ different lengths.
earlobes
Example of dominant vs. recessive genes in humans: _________________, dominant allele: unattached earlobes (E), recessive allele: attached earlobes (e).
increase; random; 70; 1
Fertilization Crossing over and random assortment ________________ diversity. __________________ combination of egg/sperm creates even greater diversity. One couple could create more than 8,388,608^2 (________ trillion) possible genetically distinct offspring. So how do genetically identical twins exist? _____ embryo --> 2.
3 RuBP + 3 CO2 --> 6 3PGA; 6 3PGA + 6 ATP + 6 NADPH --> 5 G3P (to step 3) and 1 G3P yield; 5 G3P + 3 ATP --> 3 RuBP
Formulas for 3 Phases of Calvin Cycle Fixation: Reduction: Regeneration:
non-dividing cells exit cell cycle; cell commits to go through cell cycle; DNA replicates; two centrosomes have formed; mitotic spindle begins to form; cell divides, forming two daughter cells
G1: G1 Checkpoint: S: G2: G2 Checkpoint (occurs) M: M Checkpoint:
proto-oncogenes -- oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and mutator genes
Genes conducive to cancer:
alleles; two; homozygous; heterozygous; genotype; phenotype; recessive; recessive
Genes often have different versions, called ________________. While there may be more than two possible alleles, each individual can only inherit ____________. Because of this, you can either inherit two of the same alleles (______________________) or two different alleles (__________________________). Based on the combination of alleles a person has (____________________), there will be different outward manifestations (_______________________). Alleles can be dominant or recessive -- if ___________________, you will only see a manifestation of that trait when the genotype is homozygous ___________________.
males; one; complete; incomplete; codominance
Genes on sex chromosomes (sex-linked traits) have to be treated differently in Punnett square, making sure to keep track of X's and Y's: Recessive traits on the X chromosomes are more likely to show up in the phenotypes of _____________ than in the phenotypes of females -- this is due to the fact that males typically only have __________ X chromosome, so they don't have a potential dominant allele on the other X to mask the effects of a recessive allele. As with any autosomal genes, sex-linked genes can exhibit __________________ dominance, ___________________ dominance, or ______________________.
crossing over, independent assortment, differences in fertilization
Genetic Diversity How do meiosis and sexual reproduction increase genetic diversity?
proteins; 23; genes
Genetics Genes code for _________________. _________ pairs of chromosomes in most humans. Each chromosome = 100s to 1000s of _____________.
two; twice
Given that one chromosome can consist of either one double-helical DNA molecule or __________ (in other words, one chromatid or two sister chromatids), both cells contain the same number of chromosomes. But, because the chromosomes in the top cell are unreplicated while the chromosomes in the bottom cell are replicated, the bottom cell contains ___________ as much DNA.
monohybrid; dominant; recessive; chromosomal theory of inheritance
Gregor Mendel did a series of ___________________ crosses (looking at inheritance of a single trait) that led to the discovery of ___________________ and ___________________ traits, among other things... Together, with the discovery of meiosis, Gregor Mendel's observations led to the _______________________ _______________ ______ ______________________, which tells us that genes are found on chromosomes and that the inheritance of traits is based on the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis.
genome, chromosome, gene, allele
Hierarchical organization of DNA:
excite; transient; 200-300; antenna; energy; fall; ground; reaction
How does chlorophyll absorb energy? Photons of light "______________" electrons when absorbed by chlorophyll. Only absorbed in certain ranges. Doesn't absorb green well; UV completely ejects; infrared too little. Very _______________ (impermanent). Chlorophyll organized into photosystems (__________________ + accessory pigments). Most from light-gathering "___________________". Transfers ______________ (but not electrons) to nearby pigment. Transfer causes original electrons to ___________ back down to _______________ state. Directed towards _________________ center.
microtubules; positive; negative; kinetochore; prometaphase
How does spindle apparatus work? Made of __________________--type of cytoskeletal filament with positive and negative ends. ________________ end where more microtubule assembly happens; __________________ end where usually disassembled. Some attach to _______________________ of each sister chroamtid (during ______________________).
Each gamete would inherit either all maternal or all paternal chromosomes; In meiosis, the DNA does not replicate before cell division (DNA is always replicated before cell division, whether it is mitosis or meiosis); crossing over (this would put maternal and paternal DNA on the same chromosome)
How would genetic variation be affected if maternal chromosomes always lined up on one side of the metaphase plate during meiosis I and paternal chromosomes always lined up on the other side? All of the following are different between meiosis and mitosis, except: A researcher sequences a single chromosome from a sperm cell of an individual. She finds DNA sequences that were both maternally and paternally inherited by that individual. Which of the following processes could explain this result?
is a mutation
If a base-pair change occurs in DNA, this...
stage of duplication of DNA and of growth
If you were to look at a slide of actively dividing skin cells, what stage of the cell cycle would most of the cells be in?
stop; easily
Immune System and Cancer Immune system can often ___________ cancer before it gets bad. Immune system suppression can allow cancer to develop more _______________ -- Ex: organ recipients.
sigma
In E. coli, if RNA polymerase is missing ________, then transcription initiation would not occur at the appropriate initiation sites.
complete; incomplete; codominance; polygenic inheritance; polygenic
In addition to _________________ dominance, there are multiple otherways that genotyoe can be expressed in phenotype: ___________________ dominance: neither allele is dominant; phenotype in heterozygotes is a mix of both -- Ex: flower color -- red + white = pink in heterozygote. ___________________: both alleles are expressed in heterozygotes -- Ex: chicken feathers -- black + white = black and white speckles. Ex: A and B blood types (O is completely recessive to both A and B). Ex: Sickle cell anemia -- heterozygotes have normal and sickel cell hemoglobin --> resistant to malaria. ________________ _____________________: phenotype based on the combined effects of alleles from multiple genes. Ex: eye color, height. Most traits are ________________ -- makes gene editing complicated.
DNA and proteins
In eukaryotic cells, chromosomes are composed of _____.
cytoplasm
In eukaryotic cells, translation occurs in the ________.
chromatids; centrosomes; 2; interphase; membrane; chromatids, centrosomes/cytoskeleton, nuclear envelope
In order to separate sister chromatids into different cells: Need some way of pulling apart __________________. Cytoskeleton: organized by ____________________ (which contain _______ centrioles) in animals and many other eukaryotes. Centrosome replicated during ___________________. Need to access chromatids. Dissolve nuclear ___________________. Three things to watch in cell division:
RuBP; NADPH; six; two; one
In the Calvin cycle, carbon dioxide is added to ____________. ________________ supplies the electrons that reduce the phosphorylated 3-PGA. __________ carbon dioxide molecules are required to produce ____________ G3P molecules, which can be combined to make ___________ glucose molecule.
It base pairs with a codon of mRNA
In the figure, what is the function of the AGU on the loop of the tRNA (highlighted at very bottom of figure).
RNA is synthesized
In the process of transcription, _____.
prophase (Q)
In which mitotic phase do the chromosomes condense and does the mitotic spindle begin to form?
4 unreplicated chromosomes; replication; 4 replicated chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids
Interphase G1 Phase: S Phase: G2 Phase:
several; progressively
It takes _______________ mutations to produce cancer. Once started, can spiral out of control -- more cell division + fewer repair mechanisms makes problems ______________________ worse.
Know how to draw and interpret punnett squares, including codominance, incomplete dominance, and sex-linked traits.
Know how to draw and interpret punnett squares, including codominance, incomplete dominance, and sex-linked traits.
mutations; no; more; carriers; after; common; beneficial
Lethal recessie alleles usually are due to ________________ that code for defective proteins. One copy of the "normal" allele (heterozygous) can usually produce enough protein to make up for the defective allele, but two copies of the defective allele (homozygous) makes it so that there are _________ normal proteins of that gene produced. Lethal recessive alleles are ______________ common than lethal dominant alleles because they can be passed down through ________________. Some lethal dominant alleles exist (ex: Huntington), but are more likely to stay in population if they affect people ____________ they have had children. Dominant alleles are not necessarily _________________ (polydactyly) or __________________ (Huntington).
carcinoma in situ -- early form; localized; early locally advanced; late locally advanced; metastasized
Levels of Severity of Cancer Stage 0: Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3: Stage 4:
photosynthesis; energy; carbon; living; O2; cellular respiration; ozone; life
Life as we know it would not exist without __________________. It is the source of ______________ and _________________ for most _______________ things. In geological history, _________ was not present in large amounts. Increased amounts allowed for most efficient _____________ ____________________. The ____________ layer helped yield ____________ on land.
light, water, ADP, NADP+; oxygen, ATP, NADPH
Light Reactions Inputs: Outputs:
condense; separate
M Phase (mitosis + cytokinesis) at start of mitosis, replicated chromosomes ___________________. During mitosis, sister chromatids ________________. Two daughter cells are formed by cytokinesis.
shortest; sister chromatids; kinetochore;
M phase is the _________________ phase of the cell cycle. ____________ ________________ are the two strands of a recently replicated chromosome that will be split apart during cell division. The ___________________ is the region of the centromere on the sister chromatid to which the mitotic spindle attaches.
bivalents; prophase 1; chiasmata; kinetochores; chiasmata; anaphase 1
Meiosis Because Meiosis 2 and mitosis are similar, focus on Meiosis 1. Biggest differences stem from forming ________________: side-by-side pairing of homologous pairs formed early in _________________ _______. By late prophase 1, homologous chromosomes still joined at in at least one point called the __________________ -- usually < 1. Spindle attaches to fused ______________________ so that both sister chromatids of a chromosome go to same pole. __________________ break as cell enters _____________________ _______.
46; 46; 23; 23; 46; 92; 46; 23
Meiosis Chromosomes Before Interphase: Chromosomes After Interphase: Chromosomes After Meiosis 1: Chromosomes After Meiosis 2: Chromatids Before Interphase: Chromatids After Interphase: Chromatids After Meiosis 1: Chromatids After Meiosis 2:
crossing over; alleles; combinations
Meiosis ________________ ___________: during Meiosis 1, homologous pairs of chromosomes exchange genetic material (portions switch places) at chiasmata. Creates new combinations of _______________, mixing those from maternal and paternal on the same chromatid. Even if the original cell only had one pair of chromosomes, each cell would have unique _____________________ of alleles.
mitosis; meiosis; two; homologous; chromosomes; 2; twice
Meiosis ________________ divides chromatids, keeps homologous pairs intanct. ________________ separates chromatids and homologous pairs. DNA replicates before any cell division --> meiosis has ____________ rounds of cell splitting. Meiosis 1 splits ____________________; Meiosis 2 splits _____________________. Meiosis _______ more similar to mitosis. Similar stages (prophase, metaphase, etc.), just happen ______________ (so prophase 1 and prophase 2).
independent assortment; 23; 11; 7; independent assortment
Meiosis ____________________ ____________________: during Metaphase 1, pairs line up independently -- maternal don't line up on one side and paternal on the other. Many possible combinations of maternal/paternal chromosomes. In humans, 2^_______ --> 8,388,608 (not counting combinations from crossing over). May seem unimportant but think about this: gene for hemoglobin found on chromosome _________, sickly cell allele causes disease. Gene for important ion channel on chromosome _______, cystic fibrosis allele causes disease. Important note: gene vs. allele in popular media. Imagine person inherits sickle cell allele from their father and cystic fibrosis allele from their mother. Because of ____________________ ____________________, could pass on alleles for both genetic disease, neither genetic disease, or one vs. the other.
two; haploid; four; haploid; anaphase 2; haploid; telophase I; cytokinesis
Meiosis I produces _____ cells, each of which is _____. Meiosis II typically produces _____ cells, each of which is _____. During ___________________ _____ sister chromatids separate. Anaphase II is essentially the same as mitotic anaphase except that the cell is ________________. At the end of _______________ _____ and _________________, there are two haploid cells with chromosomes that consist of two sister chromatids each.
homologous chromosomes separate, now considered haploid; sister chromatids separate, 3 chromosomes in each cell
Meiosis Stages Meiosis 1: Meiosis 2:
independent assortment; meiosis 1; random fertilization; same; fraternal; crossing over; chromatid; 70
Meiosis and sexual reproduction increase genetic diversity through three different mechanisms: __________________ ____________________ of chromosome pairs (during __________________ _______). Each of your children get some combination of the chromosomes that you got from your father and mother, they don't just get just all paternal or maternal. Many possible combinations of maternal/paternal chromosomes. __________________ ______________________: combination of egg and sperm creates even more possible combinations. Identical twins get around this by being split from the _____________ embryo. ___________________ twins are from two separate sets of eggs and sperm. ____________________ ________________: portions of homologous chromosomes at chiasmata are exchanged during Meiosis 1. Puts alleles from your mother and father on the same _________________, creating new allele combinations. Mating of a couple extends combinations possible to well over _________ trillion.
one
Mendel's law of segregation states that allele pairs segregate equally into gametes during meiosis. This means that a gamete will have only ___________ allele of any given gene, and that the probability of a gamete having one allele or the other is equal (and therefore ½, or 50%, for either allele).
law of segregation
Mendel's law that states that the pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete
law of independent assortment
Mendel's second law, stating that allele pairs separate from one another during gamete formation
chromosomal theory of inheritance; transmission; blending; acquired
Mendelian Genetics Discovery of meiosis + Gregor Mendel's observations --> ____________________ _______________ ________ ______________________, genes located on chromosomes and transmission via meiosis leads to patterns of inheritance. Studied ___________________ of traits for selective breeding. At time of his experiments, two main ideas of transmission of traits to offspring, __________________ (white flowers + red flowers = pink flowers) vs ___________________ characters (ancestral giraffe has short neck, continuous generational behavior of stretch neck to reach leaves leads to longer neck in latter generations).
peas; self; monohybrid
Mendelian Genetics Used ____________. They generally will __________-fertilize, so easy to control which parents produce offspring and which organisms are breeding together. Also, pure lines used to create a ___________________ cross.
46; 46; 46; 46; 92; 46
Mitosis Chromosomes Before Interphase: Chromosomes After Interphase: Chromosomes After Mitosis: Chromatids Before Interphase: Chromatids After Interphase: Chromatids After Mitosis:
abnormally fast cell division, structural changes in cells, in situ cancer, metastasis
Put the following in order of the events leading up to malignant cancer:
checkpoints; metaphase; interphase
Mitosis is very tightly controlled by the cell with many ______________________ to make sure that there are no mistakes. Ex: a checkpoint during ____________________ checks to make sure that the chromosomes are properly lined up; checkpoints during _____________________ check that DNA is properly duplicated and not damaged/mutated.
identical; amount; sequences; condensing; spindle; dissolving; kinetochore; Kinetochore; apart; cleaved; disassemble; centrosomes; away; de-condensing; splits; cleavage furrow; cell plate
Mitosis results in two __________________ cells that are also identical to the parent cell (especially the ________________ and _______________________ of DNA). Steps involved: 1. Prophase: _______________________ chromosomes, forming _________________ apparatus. 2. Prometaphase: ____________________ nuclear membrane, attaching microtubules of spindle apparatus to each chromatid at its ____________________. 3. Metaphase: lining the chromosomes up in middle of cell, with one sister chromatid on each side of center of the cell. _____________________ mictrotubules push/pull chromosomes until lined up for metaphase. 4. Anaphase: pulling the chromatids _____________, making them fully-fledged separate chromosomes. Right before anaphase, rest of cohesins are _________________, allowing separation. The kinetochore microtubules _______________________ from the end attached to the kinetochore, pulling chromosomes toward _______________________; at the same time, non-kinetochore microtubules push the two ends of the cell ______________ from one another. 5. Telophase: reforming the nucleus, ___________________________ the chromosomes and structural elements. 6. Cytokinesis: cytoplasm of cell _____________. Different in plant vs. animal cells; animal cells divide with ___________________ _________________, whereas plant cells form ___________ ________________ from vesicles containing cell wall components.
interphase; 46; wider; not
Mitosis starts with replicated chromosomes after __________________, ends in two cells with _________ chromosomes each. In Meiosis, start with replicated chromosomes after interphase (same as Mitosis), but due to crossing over and independent assortment, there is a much ________________ difference in terms of what you see in the offspring. Each of the chromosomes is ___________ identical to what it started with due to crossing over.
codominant; recessive; codominant
Modes of Transmission Up to interpretation and may be different at different levels: molecular vs. organ vs. full body. Ex: Sickle cell anemia: definitey ________________ at molecular level. _________________ or __________________ at individual level?
single; two; separate; independently; testcross
Monohybrid crosses trace the inheritance of a _______________ trait, dihybrid crosses trace the inheritance of __________ traits. Punnett squares for dihybrid crosses assume that the traits are on __________________ chromosomes, which will separate _____________________ during meiosis. A _________________ involves crossing a homozygous recessive individual with an individual that you don't know the genotype of.
XX; XY; Y; female; X; sperm; birds; many insects; environmental
Most human females are ___________ and most human males are __________. Presence of a ______ generally makes a male, even if there are extra sex chromosomes (_______________ is the default gender). Only monosomy that can survive to birth is single _______. In humans and most other mammals, biological sex is determined largely by whether the _____________ carries an X or Y. Sex determination can be done many different ways in other species. Females may have the different sex chromosome (______________) or there may be no sex chromosomes and sex may be determined by haploid vs. diploid (___________ ________________) or by ______________________ cues.
shortening of microtubules
Movement of the chromosomes during anaphase would be most affected by a drug that prevents:
Proto-oncogenes; oncogenes; suppressor; p53; Mutator genes; several
Mutations in several different types of genes can cause cancer: __________________________ normally promote cell division and growth. Proto-oncogenes, once mutated, are referred to as _____________________, contribute to cancer if permanently stuck "on". Ex: growth factors and other proteins involved in stimulating mitosis. Tumor _____________________ genes normally inhibit cell growth/differentiation; can be an issue if permanently shut "off" (either through mutation or epigenetics). Ex: proteins involved in cell cycle checkpoints, such as _____________. _________________ ____________: normally involved in DNA repair; mutations in these genes lead to cells being increasingly prone to more mutations. It takes _________________ mutations in these genes to get to cancer; some people are at greater risk of cancer because they already have some of these mutations.
how the chromosomes are the same size and shape with one being a maternal chromosome (shown in red) and the other being a paternal chromosome (shown in blue) how the chromosomes are not paired but aligned one above another
Note these hallmarks of metaphase of mitosis in a diploid cell:
prometaphase
Nuclear envelope disintegrates. Chromosomes attach to spindle apparatus. Microtubules contact chromosomes at kinetochores.
spindle pole; kinetochore; label targets; mark microtubules; use microscopy
Question: how do kinetochore microtubules pull chromatids apart during anaphase? Hypothesis: Microtubules shorten at the ______________ ____________. Alternative Hypothesis: Microtubules shorten at the ___________________. Experimental Setup: 1: 2: 3:
different; two
Paternal and maternal chromosomes may have ________________ alleles for the same gene (Ex: the allele for curly hair on maternal; allele for straight hair on paternal). Because of this, you may have up to __________ different alleles for any one gene.
X; inactivated; unequal; anywhere
People can survive with only one ______ chromosome (Ex: most males and people with monosomy X) because normally in females an X is __________________. This leads to a mosaic of which X chromosome is inactivated in cells in most females. ______________ crossing over can also lead to extra copies or fewer copies of genes than normal. This tends to be more variable in effects because crossing over can happen _________________ on a chromosome.
ATP; NADPH; chloroplast; carbons; CO2; ATP/NADPH; G3P; sucrose; starch; temporary
Photosynthesis Recall that these reactions produce ____________ and ________________ for the next stage. This ATP does not leave the _________________. Calvin cycle takes ______________ from _____________ and energy from _______________________ to produce _____________. G3P can then be used to create many other macromolecules. Primarily: _________________ when photosynthesis is slow, ______________ when photosynthesis is rapid (___________________ storage).
reaction; ATP; H+ gradient; NADP+; NADPH
Photosystem 1 Photosystem 1 also has a ______________ center, passes electrons. Difference: no ___________ produced; does not utilize a ________ _________________. Just transfers electrons to ________________ to form __________________.
special pair; resonance; electrons; ETC; H+; ATP; photophosphorylation; water; splitting; O2; H+; photosystem 1
Photosystem 2 The "_____________ ___________" in the reaction center stimulated via __________________. Transfers ________________ to an electron carrier. Electrons immediately transferred to an _____________. Just like mitochondria, transfer of electrons leads to movement of __________ across membrane. H+ gradient used to power ___________ synthesis. This is called ____________________________. What about the electrons now missing from the reaction center? Replaced by electrons from ______________. "_____________________" of water forms __________ and adds more __________ to the gradient. Also, now an extra electron at the end of ETC, what happens to it? It is transferred to _________________________ ________.
absorbed; chlorophyll; acceptor; light; chemical
Photosystems Once energy reaches reaction center, _______________ by "special pair" of ____________________ that transfers electrons to electron __________________. Key transformation: now ____________ energy --> _______________ energy.
synergistically; first; second; two; one
Photosystems 1 and 2 Two different photosystems act ____________________. Key: photosystem 1 discovered ______________, but actually used ___________________. Chronologically: photosystem __________ then photosystem ___________.
gametes; embryo; nondisjunction; unequal; anaphase; genes
Problems with Meiosis Meiosis in animals makes _________________ (egg and sperm) that are then combined to form an ________________. Problems that can occur in meiosis: ______________________ -- chromosomes don't separate properly. Also, ______________ crossing over. Nondisjunction occurs because of something that happens in metaphase, but really see the effects in __________________. Can happen during either phase of Meiosis, 1 or 2. Result in too many or not enough copies of ______________ in embryos.
crossing over
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.
cyclins
Proteins that are involved in the regulation of the cell cycle and that show fluctuations in concentration during the cell cycle are called _____.
genotype; 50; allele; principle of segregation; independent; no
Punnett squares predict the probability that offspring will get a certain __________________, based on the genotype of parents. Punnett squares are based on the fact that any egg or sperm has a ________% chance of inheriting each ________________ present in a parent. This is due to the ___________________ _______ ____________________, which in turn due to the fact that the chromosomes carrying the different alleles are separated during meiosis. Every offspring is ___________________ of their siblings. That is, the outcome of one child has _______ effect on the probability that the next child will have the same genotype.
cystic fibrosis; membrane; percussive; antibiotics
Recessive Genetic Disorders _________________ ___________________: most common fatal genetic disease in North America. Defective allele: causes organs (ex: lungs) that usually produce a thin mucus to produce a very thick, stick mucus (due to a malfunctioning __________________ protein). Non-defective allele: functioning protein. Treatment: regular __________________ treatment therapy and ____________________.
tay-sachs; motor; brain; three
Recessive Genetic Disorders ______________________: Defective allele: can't make an enzyme that breaks down sphingolipids--builds up. Non-defective allele: functioning enzyme. Gradual deterioration of ______________ and _____________ function; death by ___________ years.
phenylketonuria (PKU); phenylalanine
Recessive Genetic Disorders _____________________________: Defective allele: can't make enzyme that breaks down phenylalanine, an amino acid, builds up and creates a toxic by-product. Non-defective allele: functioning enzyme Treatment: avoid _____________________ (environment).
cystic fibrosis, phenylketonuria, tay-sachs; carriers
Recessive lethal genetic disorders include: Heterozygous individuals are _______________ for the recessively inherited disease.
energy; diversity; alleles; portion
Reproduction Takes ________________ to produce eggs/sperm and find a mate. Main advantage of sexual reproduction: increase genetic ____________________. Generates new combinations of __________________. Genetic diversity --> ______________ of a species may survive after a drastic environmental change.
telophase
Reverse of the first two steps. Chromosomes uncoil. Structural elements go back to normal. Membrane of nucleus reforms. Around same time: cytokinesis. Nuclear envelope reforms, and chromosomes decondense. Cell Division begins: actin-myosin ring causes plasma membrane to begin pinching in.
CO2; rubisco; most; O2; CO2; photorespiration
Rubisco the initial enzyme catalyzing fixation of ___________ to the 5-carbon sugar is called ________________. Thought to be ____________ common enzyme on Earth. Problem: _________ and _____________ can both bind to rubisco's active site. If O2 binds: ______________________ inefficient because uses energy (ATP) and releases CO2.
one strand of the DNA molecule; DNA polymerase
Semiconservative replication involves a template. What is the template? DNA contains the template needed to copy itself, but it has no catalytic activity in cells. What catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides in the DNA polymer being formed?
infertility; single X; most
Sex Chromosomes Most common problem with extra/missing sex chromosomes: _____________________. XXY and XYY males: subtle (if any) differences from XY males. XXX and X females: mostly subtle differences from XX females. ____________ _______: only viable monosomy in humans -- ____________ health problems out of sex chromosome monosomies/trisomies.
X; X; Y; fewer
Sex Chromosomes Only discussed autosomal chromosomes (not sex chromosomes) so far. Human females generally two ______ chromosomes; human males: one ______, one _______. Having an atypical number of sex chromosomes tends to cause _________________ problems than do atypical numbers of other chromosomes.
female; male; 50%; 50%; 10; Y
Sex Determination in Mammals In most mammals, _______________ is default gender. Sex of the fertilized egg is solely determine by the ____________. Male has a __________ chance of giving an X and a __________ change of giving a Y. Not all mammals! Platypuses have _________ sex chromosomes. Transcaucasian mole voles have no _______ chromosomes.
egg; number; temperature
Sex Determination in Other Species Animals have man other ways of determining sex. Most birds: chromosome in ___________ determines sex of offspring (not like sperm in mammals). Some insects: ________________ of chromosomes. In many vertebrates: determine by __________________ or other envornmental factors.
homologous; none of the chromosomes were homologous to each other; combinations
Sex chromosomes are __________________ chromosomes if they are XX, but not if they are XY. You have isolated a single cell from a diploid organism. Which of the following would indicate that the cell was at metaphase of meiosis 2 (and not metaphase of meiosis 1)? Crossing over creates new ____________________ of alleles.
nondisjunction; less
Sex chromosomes can also have ___________________, but extra copies or missing sex chromosomes tend to be ___________ severe than in other chromosomes.
anaphase
Sister chromatids pulled apart. Cohesins cleaved by beginning of anaphase. Now considered separate chromosomes. Sister chromatids separate into daughter chromosomes, which are pulled to opposite poles of spindle apparatus.
cervical, penile, and other anogenital cancer in men and women; liver cancer; b-cell lymphomas, especially Burkitt's lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma; adult t-cell leukemia; lymphomas and leukemias; Kaposi's sarcoma
Some Viruses Linked to Human Cancer: Human Papilloma Viruses (HPVs): Hepatitis B and C Viruses: Epstein-Barr Viruses: Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus (HTLV-1): Cytomegalovirus (CMV): Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus:
aneuploidy; trisomy; monosomy
Some individuals even in a diploid species may not have the typical number of chromosomes (____________________). Ex: if an individual has an extra of one of the chromosomes (3 instead of 2) they have a ________________. If they have only one, rather than a pair of one of the chromosomes, they have a _________________.
polyploid; aneuploid; trisomy; monosomy
Some species have cells with different numbers of sets than diploid or haploid. ___________________ is having more than two sets of chromosomes. Ex: 3n = triploid, 4n = tetraploid, 8n = octaploid, etc. Some individuals of a species may be ____________________, have extra or too few of a particular chromosome. ___________________ have three instead of typical two, ___________________ have one.
push/pull; metaphase; astrial; shorten; centrosomes; anaphase; apart; kinetochore
Spindle Apparatus Microtubules attached to kinetochores __________________ chromosomes into position at __________________ plate. Centrosomes held in place by _____________ microtubules. Once cohesins cleaved, kinetochore microtubules ________________, pulling chromosomes towards ____________________ (____________________). At same time, non-kinetochore microtubules push the two ends of the cell ____________. Plus end frays/disassembles. Chromosome pulled along by ____________________.
S, G2, beginning of M (prophase --> early anaphase), end of M (late anaphase --> telophase); beginning of M, end of M; S, G2, beginning of M, end of M
Stages where sister chromatids are present: Stages where DNA is condensed: Stages where the cell contains twice as much DNA as it did in G1:
twice; half; homologous; homolog; 1; chiasmata; fused; separation; 1; sister chromatids; mitosis
Steps in meiosis are similar to mitosis, just done _____________, resulting in ___________ the number of chromosomes as a normal cell. Meiosis 1 splits the ____________________ pairs of chromosomes. Early in prophase 1, each chromosomes pair is paired up with its __________________. By the end of prophase 1, non-sister chromatids of the homologous chromosomes are connecteed by _______ or (usually) more ___________________. In meiosis 1, the kinetochores of sister chromatids are __________________, allowing ____________________ of homologous pairs, but not sister chromatids. Cells are considered haploid by the end of meiosis ________. Meiosis 2 splits the ________________ __________________ made during interphase -- it is similar to _________________.
prophase I; anaphase I; metphase 2; haploid; four haploid; prophase 2; haploid
Synapsis, the pairing of homologous chromosomes, occurs during ________________ ______. During _______________ _______ sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres, and homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles. During _________________ ______ chromosomes align single file along the equator of a haploid cell. Metaphase II is essentially the same as mitotic metaphase except that the cell is ________________. At the end of telophase II and cytokinesis there are __________ ________________ cells. During _________________ _______ a spindle forms in a haploid cell. Prophase II is essentially the same as mitotic prophase except that the cells are ______________.
growth factors arrive from other cells; cells produce cyclin and E2F after stimulation by growth factors; cyclin binds to cdk (cdk is phophorylated, Rb inactivates e2f by binding to it); Cdk phosphorylates Rb after inactivating phosphate is removed; phosphoryalted Rb releases E2F; E2F triggers production of S-phase proteins
The G1 Checkpoint is Subject to Control 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
metaphase
The M-phase checkpoint ensures that all chromosomes are attached to the mitotic spindle. If this does not happen, cells would most likely be arrested in:
X inactivation; many
The X Chromosome No real health problems with XY vs. XXY vs. XX vs. XXX. _______ ___________________: during embryonic development. Mosaic of acitve X's from father and mother. Random. Ex: Rett Syndrome. Severity depends on how ___________ affected X's are activate vs inactive.
chiasma
The X-shaped, microscopically visible region representing homologous chromatids that have exchanged genetic material through crossing over during meiosis.
immune system
The ________________ ________________ normally helps prevent cancer by killing off cancerous cells -- one reason why suppressing the immune system is dangerous.
more; bigger; variation; death; miscarriage; severe; nondisjunction; meiosis; mitosis; mosaicism
The bigger the chromosome, the ___________ genes it generally contains. Thus, an extra copy or a missing copy of a chromosome is generally a _________________ problem if it is a bigger chromosome (though there is __________________ in size to number of genes). Most chromosomal abnormalities result in _______________ of an embryo and subsequent _______________________. Few trisomies or monosomies can be carried to term, and of those, most result in _________________ health problems. Extra copies or not enough copies of a chromosome can be caused by _______________________ during _________________ (Ex: chromosomes not splitting properly during meiosis 1 or 2). People can also get less severe version of these disorders if _________________ (not meisos) had a nondisjunction some time during embryonic development (this is called __________________).
DNA polymerase; replication fork; daughter DNA; leading strand; okazaki fragments
The enzyme that can replicate DNA is called ________ __________________. During DNA replication, an open section of DNA, in which a DNA polymerase can replicate DNA, is called a ___________________ _____________. After replication is complete, the new DNAs, called __________________ ______________, are identical to each other. The new DNA strand that grows continuously in the 5' to 3' direction is called the __________________ ______________. _____________________ _____________________ are the short sections of DNA that are synthesized on the lagging strand of the replicating DNA.
posttranscriptional modification removes the introns
The mRNA is smaller than the length of the DNA that codes for it because ________.
separation of sister chromatids
The mitotic spindle is a microtubular structure that is involved in _____.
exact; identical
The process of mitosis is the way in which cells divide to generate _____________ genetic copies of each other; therefore, the parents and daughters are genetically _________________.
polyploidy
Though we commonly talk about haploid (n) and diploid (2n) cells, some species may have more than two sets of chromosomes (___________________). Ex: 4n or 8n
same; crossing over; closer; together; loci; pleiotropy; epistasis; mitochrondria; environment
There are several complications to interpreting gene expression: If two genes are on the ___________ chromosome, a punnett square won't predict the probabilities of offspring genotypes correctly. ________________ _____________ makes this complicated. The ________________ together the genes are on the chromosomes, the more likely that they will be inherited ___________________ (i.e. not cross over). This idea has been used to map gene ___________ -- where a specific gene is found on a chromosome in comparison to other genes. One allele can have effects on multiple aspects of a person's phenotype (_____________________). One gene can affect the expression of another gene (__________________ -- one gene masks expression of another gene). Not all genes are found in the nucleus -- some are found in the ______________________; mutations can cause fatigue, neural problems. ________________________ also plays a very important part in determining phenotype.
without; your
There is no cure for cancer for a variety of reasons, but primarily: it is hard to target cancer cells ______________ harming other body cells (cancer cells are still ____________ cells!) and there are many different forms of cancer, each with their own causes and difficulties.
pedigrees; transmission; diseases
Tracing Genetic Disease __________________ trace families and their traits. Trace the inheritance of a trait down family lines. Used to figure out the mode of ____________________ (dominant vs. recessive, sex-linked vs. autosomal, etc.). Also used in genetic counseling of perspective parents to trace ____________________.
even; sexually; meiosis; seeds
Triploid (3n) species are rare. Polyploid species almost always have an __________ number of sets of chromosomes (4n, 6n, or 8n), especially if they reproduce ________________. One example of a triploid organism is seedless watermelons. Though seedless watermelons can easily undergo mitosis to grow and produce new cells, they have difficulty undergoing ________________ and thus do not produce seeds (_____________ are the product of plant sexual reproduction).
down syndrome; patau syndrome; edward's syndrome; 1; term; miscarriage; increases; mosaicism; less; not
Trisomies Due to nondisjunction and fertilization: _____________ ___________________: 3 of chromosome 21. _________________ _____________________: (chromosome 13) and ___________________ ______________________: (chromosome 18). Majority in both cases don't live past _____ year. Besides the sex chromosomes, these are the only trisomies (extra of one chromosome) that can be carried to ____________. Most trisomies --> ______________________. Maternal age: ____________________ nondisjunction -- why older women miscarry more. _______________________: genetic change (in this case nondisjunction of mitosis, instead of meiosis) early in embryo. ____________ severe version of disorder. Because __________ all of person's cells have trisomy.
true
True or false: In most human males, genotype and phenotype associated with the genes on the X chromosome are determined by the one X chromosome he inherits from his mother.
encode proteins that help prevent uncontrolled cell growth
Tumor suppressor genes ________.
more; anywhere; more; SRY
Unequal Crossing Over Back to atypical chromosomes... Unequal crossing over ___________ variable than nondisjunction. Crossing over can happen pretty much _________________ and often happens ___________ than one time on the same chromosome. Ex: __________ gene.
disruption of mitotic spindle formation
Vinblastine is a standard chemotherapeutic drug used to treat cancer. Because it interferes with the assembly of microtubules, its effectiveness must be related to:
directly; HPV; mutations; retroviruses; weakening
Viruses How do viruses lead to cancer? Several pathways: _________________ interfere with proto-oncogenes and/or tumor suppressor genes. Ex: ___________ inserts oncogenes and interferes with tumor suppressor genes --> wart/lesions aid with spread of virus. Causing _________________. ____________________ sometimes insert their DNA into regulatory genes. ______________________ the immune system, especially if damaged immune cells.
tumor suppressor genes; p53; G1; apoptosis
What Kinds of Genes? _______________ ________________________ _______________: normal regulatory genes that inibit cell growth, differentiation, division, or adhesion. Problematic if not able to perform their function. Ex: ______________ -- "guardian of the genome" mutated in >50% of human cancer. Part of _________ checkpoint; if DNA damaged: ____________________.
mutator genes; prone
What Kinds of Genes? __________________ _______________: involved in DNA repair (repairing mutations). If mutate in way that stop functioning, cell becomes increasingly ____________ to mutations.
proto-oncogenes; oncogenes
What Kinds of Genes? ______________________________: normally regulatory genes that promote cell growth, differentiation, division, and adhesion. Problematic if stuck permanently "on". Mutated proto-oncogenes are called ____________________.
chromosomes that are similar in their size, shape, and gene content
What are homologous chromosomes?
More than one codon can specify the addition of the same amino acid
What does it mean when we say the genetic code is redundant?
A chromatid is one half of a replicated chromosome, whereas a chromosome consists of DNA wrapped around proteins in a highly organized manner. Replicated DNA contains two sister chromatids that remain attached until anaphase.
What is the difference between a chromatid and a chromosome?
to determine what kinds of gametes an individual can produce. Forked-line diagrams provide a method for determining which gamete genotypes an individual can produce, and in what proportions.
What is typically the purpose of drawing a forked-line diagram in genetics?
forked-line diagrams
When tracking more than two traits, use ___________________________ ____________________.
the bigger the chromosomes, the more likely it is to have more genes (chromosome 1 is the largest chromosomes, has around 2,000 to 2,100 genes); Y
Which chromosomes would you expect to have the most genes and the fewest genes? ________ chromosome has the fewest genes out of any human chromosome.
Hb^a Hb^s
Which genotype below will confer resistance to malaria but not result in sickle cell anemia?
pleiotropy
Which of the following describes the ability of a single allele to have multiple phenotypic effects? A single gene having multiple effects on an individuals phenotype
the three-base sequence of mRNA
Which of the following is directly related to a single amino acid?
During X inactivation in female mammals, the same X is inactivated in every cell in the female embryo (this is false as which X is inactivated in any one cell is completely random)
Which of the following is false concerning chromosomes and their inheritance?
for the hypothesis that microtubules shorten at the spindle pole: both the darkened sections and the chromosomes will move towards the poles; for the alternate hypothesis that microtubules shorten at the kinetochore: the darkened sections will remain stationary while the chromosomes move towards the poles
Which of the following predictions make sense, based on the experimental set-up?
As it gets larger, it presses against other cells/tissues, blocking from carrying out normal functions + malfunction.
Why does cancer cause health problems?
energy; endocrine; hormones
Why does cancer cause health problems? Aside from as it gets larger, it presses against other cells/tissues, blocking from carrying out normal functions + malfunction, rapidly growing cells use a lot of ______________ --> fatigue. Depending on what type of cell is overgrowing and how mutatied it is, cancers affecting ________________ (hormone-producing) organs --> over or under-produce __________________.
Gene has function in normal, healthy people. The gene itself isn't responsible for the disease, rather the particular mutation/allele is responsible for cystic fibrosis disease
Why is it inaccurate to call the cystic fibrosis allele the cystic fibrosis gene?
NADPH; ETC; proton; acceptor; glucose; energy; O2; water; energy; NADPH
Z Scheme Electrons move from water to ________________. Parallels with _____________ of mitochondria: ETC builds ______________ gradient and has a final electron ________________. Biggest different: in mitochondria, first electron donor (____________________) higher in _______________ than final electron acceptor (____________). In photosynthesis: fist electron donor (________________) is lower in _______________ than final acceptor (__________________)
plants; animal; Cell Plate; binary fission; circular
____________ also use mitosis, but cell wall complicates cytokinesis. Cannot use cleavage furrow, like _____________. __________ ____________: uses spindle microtubules to direct vesicles with cell wall components. Bacteria use _____________ _______________ instead of mitosis. Similar in many ways, but _________________ chromosomes.
haploid; n; 23
_____________ cells contain one copy of each chromosome. ______ stands for the number of distinct types of chromosomes in a cell. n = _________ in humans.
rubisco; photorespiration; inefficient; energy; carbon dioxide; high; closed; 4; C4; different; CAM; night; day
_______________ can fix oxygen to the 5-carbon sugar instead of carbin dioxide (______________________). this makes it somewhat ________________ because this ends up using ______________ and releasing _______________ _______________. it is most problematic when oxygen levels are ___________ in leaves, such as when the pores regulating gas exchange are ________________. some plants, especially in dry environments get around this problem by initially fixing carbon dioxide to create a ______-carbon molecule. in ________ plants this fixation of carbon dioxide happens in __________________ cells than the calvin cycle does, separating the two in space. in ______________ plants, carbon fixation happens at ___________ (when it isn't as dry and opening the pores in the leaves to exchange gases doesn't dehydrate the plant as much) and the calvin cycle continues during the ___________.
diploid; maternal; paternal; 46
_______________ cells have two versions of each of distinct type, one set from their mother (__________________ chromosomes) and one set from their father (___________________ chromosomes). 2n = _________ in humans.
Benign; in situ; spreading
_______________ tumors have uncontrolled cell division, but have not yet lost control of cell differentiation; _____ ___________ cancers are cancers that have not yet metastasized; the later stages of cancer are after the cancer has started __________________ to different parts of the body.
Interphase
_________________ is the "time between phases" when the cell is carrying out tissue functions and preparing for division.
pedigrees; inheritance; potential; pedigrees; skip; not; sex-linked; varies; level
___________________ trace the inheritance of a trait down family lines. Specific symbols denote male (square) vs. female (circle) and affected (filled in) vs. carrier (half-filled) vs. not affected (unfilled) for a specific trait. If you know the mode of ___________________ of a trait, you can use a pedigree to figure out the _________________ genotypes of different individuals. Alternatively, scientists can use _________________ to figure out the mode of inheritance of a trait. Ex: recessive traits tend to ___________ generations; dominant traits do __________. Ex: __________________ traits have different inheritance patterns in males vs. females. Mode of transmission (dominant vs. codominant vs. incomplete dominance) of traits can be occasionally subjective and often _______________ depending on what ______________ you are looking at (molecular vs. overall phenotype).
zygote
a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes; a fertilized ovum. A fertilized egg.
gamete
a mature haploid male or female germ cell that is able to unite with another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote.
interphase
after chromosome replication, each chromosome is composed of two sister chromatids. Centrosomes have replicated.
genome
all genetic material in a cell (all non-reproductive cells of an organism have the same genome). In many genomes, there are multiple chromosomes.
gene therapy
an experimental technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease. In the future, this technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a patient's cells instead of using drugs or surgery.
grow; duplicate; chromosomes; two; chromatids; homologous; diploid; haploid
before either type of cell division can occur, the cell must _____________ and _________________ its ______________________. So: before mitosis/meiosis, there are __________ copies (___________________) for each chromosome; each chromosome is part of a pair, one from each parent (________________________ chromosomes). Cells with a pair of each chromosome are ________________ (Ex: most body cells); if only one of each chromosome they are ____________________ (Ex: sperm/egg cells).
interphase; cohesins; number; genes/alleles; cytokinesis
before mitosis, _________________ produces copies of each chromosome (sister chromatids) joined by _________________. Mitosis divides sister chromatids to two daughter nuclei with identical _________________ of chromosomes and __________________________. _____________________ (usually) follows, dividing cytoplasm into two daughter cells.
shorter; higher
blue light has _______________ wavelengths and is ______________ in energy in comparison to red light.
two
cell division in mitosis is complete: __________ daughter cells form.
divide
cells need to be able to _____________ in order to grow/develop, reproduce, and renew tissue.
division
chromosomes are not normally condensed -- only during ________________.
chromosome; 23; 22; 1; not; genes; locus
continuous strand of double-stranded DNA, plus its associated proteins. Each chromosome contains many genes, each at their own locus. Linear in eukaryotes, circular in prokaryotes. humans have ________ pairs of chromosomes (_______ pairs autosomal, ________ pair of sex chromosomes. More chromosomes or more DNA does ___________ mean that the organism is more complex. Each chromosome has many _____________, each specific points (gene _____________).
allele; protein
different versions of a gene that code for the same trait. Ex: different hair textures, blood types, genetic diseases. Slight differences in DNA sequence --> small or major differences in protein structure/function. Most people have "normal" allele, people with genetic disease will have allele that codes for defective _______________.
chromosomal theory of inheritance
generalization that genes are located on chromosomes and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization accounts for inheritance. Genes located on chromosomes and transmission via meiosis leads to patterns of inheritance.
polydactyly
having more than the normal number of fingers or toes
the calvin cycle requires the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-capturing reactions, while the input to the light-capturing reactions are regenerated by the calvin cycle
how are the light-capturing reactions and the calvin cycle interdependent?
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/O1KzM86jIsw84rzLdVa8tcDqgnrmmywU
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/O1KzM86jIsw84rzLdVa8tcDqgnrmmywU
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-bio-modelbox-tips-on-drawing-flow-charts-photosynthesis
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-bio-modelbox-tips-on-drawing-flow-charts-photosynthesis
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell-calvin-cycle
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell-calvin-cycle
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell-light-reactions
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell-light-reactions
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell-photosynthesis-dry-climates
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell-photosynthesis-dry-climates
blue/purple and red
in which wavelengths/wavelength of light did the oxygen-sensing bacteria likely congregate the most?
non-dividing; preparation; little
most cells spend the majority of their time either in a __________________________ stage or in _____________________ to divide, very _______________ time spent actually dividing.
light; ATP; NADPH; calvin; carbohydrates; carbon dioxide; carriers; stop; stops
photosynthesis consists of two interconnected steps: the __________-capturing reactions store light energy in __________ and _____________. the ______________ cycle uses the energy in ATP and NADPH to build ______________________ from _______________ ________________. Regenerates energy ________________ for 1st stage. stopping one stage will necessarily ____________ the other, due to being linked by ATP and NADPH. Like the ETC and first three stages of cell respiration, regeneration of energy carriers is key -- ___________ without.
energy; carbons; oxygen; aerobic; ozone
photosynthesis is important for all living things -- it is a source of ____________ and ____________ and also led to the accumulation of ______________ in the atmosphere. this allowed for ________________ respiration and the formation of the _____________ layer.
chloroplasts; leaves; both; thylakoid; stroma; enzymes; stroma
photosynthesis takes place in _________________. Takes place in _______________, not roots. Used in ___________ stages of photosynthesis. chloroplasts have three membranes that define three difference spaces, however, most of the action takes places in the ________________ membrane (light-capturing reactions) or the ______________ (calvin cycle). As thylakoid surface area increases, it houses important _________________. _________________ is the space between the thylakoid membrane and the middle "inner membrane".
absorb; electrons; electrons; electron; ground; resonance; reaction center; electron carrier
photosynthetic pigment molecules _______________ energy through the excitement of their ________________ when _______________ are absorbed. they can pass on this energy to other nearby pigment molecules by exciting an _______________ of that adjacent molecule. they do not pass the electrons to the next pigment, however. The excited electron merely goes back to its ________________ state when the energy has been passed on. in photosystems, this energy is passive via _______________ from pigment molecule to pigment molecule until it reaches the ________________ ____________. In the reaction center, the first true transfer from light to chemical energy occurs as an electron is transferred to an _________________ ________________.
chlorophylls; carotenoids; accessory; cant; chlorophylls; antioxidants
photosynthetic pigments can be divided into two major classes (differ in structure, absorption spectrum, and main function): _________________: absorb purple/blue and red light; they appear green. Action spectrum closely follows, most directly involved in photosynthesis. _________________: absorb blue/green and appear yellow or orange. Antioxidants. Carotenes and Xanthophylls. Ex: carrots. Carotenoids are ______________ pigments, they are not as directly involved in photosynthesis, but still vital. They absorb wavelengths that chlorophylls ____________, they also pass energy to ____________________. Carotenoids absord some wavelengths that chlorophylls do not. More importantly though, they act as ____________________ to neutralize free radicals that are inevitably formed when electrons are knocked off of atoms by high energy light.
thylakoid; pigments; violet/blue; red; green; white; black/darkness
photosynthetic pigments can be found in the _________________ membrane. _________________ are molecules that can only absorb certain wavelengths of light (the color that they appear is actually the wavelengths that are not absorbed), other wavelengths are reflected or transmitted. Photosynthetic pigments absorb largely ____________________ and ______________ light and reflect _____________, which is why plants appear green. _____________ light contains all the colors/wavelengths of light in the visible spectrum, whereas ___________________ is the absence of these wavelengths.
rett syndrome
progressive neurological developmental disorder featuring constant hand-wringing, intellectual disability, and impaired motor skills X-linked dominant
gene; 20,000-25,000; nucleotides; protein
short segment of DNA, usually coding for a protein (certain function). We have ____________________ genes. Order of ________________ determines protein. Ex: gene for hemoglobin produces hemoglobin ________________.
blue; right
shorter wavelengths of light, such as ___________ light, are higher in energy than longer wavelengths of light, such as _________ light.
angiogenesis; increases; pea; signaling; increases
some cancers fool body into growing new blood vessels around and through them. ___________________ cancer growth rate. Tumors need lots of energy to grow quickly. Without angiogenesis, would not generally get larger than a ___________. To do this, highjacks a normal capillary __________________ cell. ____________________ metastasis.
metastasis; monitored
spread of cancer from one area of the body to another. Why does cancer metastasize? Anchoring of extracellular matrix normally carefully __________________. Cancer: breakdown of cell signaling.
calvin; 3; G3P; sucrose; starch
the ATP and NADPH from the light-capturing reactions are used in the ______________ cycle. the calvin cycle produces a _____-carbon sugar ___________ that can be used to build many other molecules. primarily immediately used to build ________________ (if photosynthesis is slow) or _______________ (if photosynthesis is rapid).
rubisco; 6; NADPH; ATP; G3P; regenerated; last
the first step of the calvin cycle uses the enzyme ________________ to fix carbon dioxide onto a 5-carbon sugar, creating a _____-carbon sugar that is immediately split in two. energy from ______________ and __________ is used to produce G3P from that 3-carbon molecule. Some __________ leaves here to be formed into other molecules; most of it stays in the calvin cycle. the original 5-carbon sugar is ___________________ from G3P in the ___________ phase of the cycle.
action spectrum of photosynthesis; exposed algal cells to all the wavelengths of visible light in the presence of oxygen-seeking bacteria, recorded the number of bacteria swarming near algal cells exposed to different wavelengths.
the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of light in promoting photosynthesis How was it discovered?
two; ETC; hydrogen; thylakoid; ATP; photophosphorylation; water; oxygen; 1; carriers; electrons; NADPH
there are _________ photosystem types in plants and other photosynthetic eukaryotes photosystem 2 uses an ____________ to fuel the transport of ___________________ ions across the _________________ membrane. the resulting electrochemical gradient is used to fuel the formation of _____________ by ATP Synthase (_______________________________). the electrons taken from the reaction center of photosystem 2 are regenerated by splitting _______________, which releases ________________. once the electrons reach the end of photosystem 2's ETC, they are transferred to the reaction center of photosystem _________. photosystem 1 also passes electron between multiple ___________________. end result of photosystem 1's redox reactions is giving _________________ to ________________.
mitosis; meiosis; meiosis; diversity
there are two types of cell division in eukaryotes, _________________ (which creates identical cells, same amount of DNA, splits identical chromatids) and... _________________ (which creates cells with half the normal amount of DNA, only for sexual reproduction, 1/2 DNA, splits up chromatids and homologous chromosomes, 2 rounds). _________________ is used in sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction is common because it increases genetic __________________, making species more likely to survive in changing environmental conditions.
polygenic
trait controlled by two or more genes
antiangiogenic drugs
treatments that stop tumours from growing their own blood vessels.
malignant tumor
tumor cells divide and spread to adjacent tissues and to distant tissues through lymphatic vessesls and blood vessels.
benign tumor
tumor cells may continue to divide, but they are not invasive (they do not spread from tumor).
the number of bacteria clustered at each wavelength (color) was approximately proportional to the amount of oxygen being produced by that portion of the alga; the distribution of chloroplasts within each algal cell was approximately the same; the light source emits equal numbers of photons at each wavelength in the visible spectrum
what assumptions was the experimenter making in this experiment?
photosynthesis stores energy in complex organic molecules; respiration releases energy from complex organic molecules
which of the following statements best describes the relationship between photosynthesis and respiration?