BIO 142, Chapter 14: Blood

State the function of histamine, heparin and serotonin and identify the cells that produce them

Histamine promotes inflammation, heparin inhibits blood clotting. White blood cells produce them.

Explain and demonstrate the procedure for identifying an unknown blood type using anti-A and anti-B serum reagents

In performing the blood test to determine blood type, three drops of blood are taken from the person. Anti-A serum, which contains anti-a antibodies is added to the first drop. Anti-B serum, which contains anti-b antibodies is added to the second drop.

Erythropoietin

Kidney hormone that promotes red blood cell formation; EPO

Megakaryocytes

Large bone marrow cell that shatters to yield blood platelets.

Granulocytes

Leukocytes with granules in its cytoplasm

Erythroblastosis Fetalis

Life-threatening massive agglutination in the fetus or neonate due to the mother's anti-Rh antibodies reacting with the babies Rh positive red blood cells

Identify the major substances found in plasma and state their origins and functions

Plasma is a complex mixture that includes: Water - Amino Acids - Proteins - Carbohydrates - Lipids - Vitamins - Hormones - Electrolytes - Cellular Wastes -

Fibrinogen

Plasma protein converted into fibrin during blood coagulation. Constitutes about 4% of the plasma proteins. Synthesized in the liver, it is the largest of the plasma proteins.

Prothrombin

Plasma protein that functions in blood clotting

Albumins

Plasma protein that helps regulate the osmotic concentration of blood. Smallest of the plasma proteins, yet account for 60% of these proteins by weight. Synthesized in the liver.

Positive Feedback System

Process by which changes cause additional similar changes, producing unstable conditions

Plasma Proteins

Protein dissolved in blood plasma

Plasim

Protein-splitting enzyme that can digest fibrin in a blood clot

Erythrocyte

Red blood cell

Erythropoiesis

Red blood cell formation

List the five main plasma proteins and state their functions. Identify their sites of production

Albumin - helps maintain colloid osmotic pressure Globulin (subdivided into alpha, beta and gamma) Alpha Globulins - Transport lipids and fat-soluble vitamins Beta Globulins - Transport lipids and fat-soluble vitamins Gamma Globulins - Constitute the antibodies of immunity Fibrinogen - Plays a key role in blood coagulation

List the four blood types and the agglutinogens (antigens) and agglutinins (antibodies) that are present in each type. State the preferred and permissible blood type(s) for transfusion. Identify the type that is sometimes considered a universal donor and universal recipient.

Blood Type: A, Antigen: A, Anti-body: anti-B Blood Type: B, Antigen: B, Anti-body: anti-A Blood Type: AB, Antigen: A and B, Anti-body: Neither Anti-A nor Anti-B Blood Type: O, Antigen: Neither A nor B, Anti-body: Both Anti-A and Anti-B Preferred blood types for transfusion: A-A, B-B, AB-AB, O-O Permissible blood types for transfusion: A-O, B-O, AB-A-B-O, Type O is a universal donor and type AB is a universal recipient

List three hemostatic mechanisms. Indicate the stimulus that triggers the mechanism and the effect of the mechanism

Blood Vessel Spasm - Stimulus: Direct Stimulus to vessel wall or to pain receptors; platelets release serotonin, a vasoconstrictor. Effect: Smooth muscles in vessel wall contract reflexly; vasoconstriction helps maintain prolonged vessel spasm. Platelet Plug Formation - Stimulus: Exposure to platelets to rough surfaces or to collagen of connective tissue. Effect: Platelets adhere to rough surfaces and to each other, forming a plug. Blood Coagulation - Stimulus: Cellular damage and blood contact with foreign surfaces activate factors that favor coagulation. Effect: Blood clot forms as a result of a series of reactions, terminating in the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin.

Atherosclerosis

Condition in which fatty substances accumulate on the inner linings of arteries.

Platelet

Cytoplasmic fragment formed in the bone marrow that helps blood clot. Also called Thrombocytes

Red Blood Cells

Disc-shaped cell lacking a nucleus, that is packed with the oxygen carrying molecule hemoglobin; erythrocyte

List the three major types of blood cells and state the site of their production and their functions

Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells form in the fetus in the yolk sac, liver and spleen and in an adult in the red bone marrow. They transport and carry gases and oxygen, white blood cells develop from hemotopoietic stem cells in the red bone marrow in response to hormones. They fight infections. Platelets (or Thrombocytes) are not complete cells. They arise from very large cells in the red bone marrow called megakaryocytes. They develop from hematopoietic stem cells in response to the hormone Thrombopoietin. Platelets help repair damaged blood vessels by sticking to broken surfaces. They release serotonin which contracts smooth muscles in the vessel walls, reducing blood flow.

Discuss the factors that inhibit blood clot formation and their actions

Smooth Lining of Blood Vessel - Prevents activation of intrinsic blood clotting mechanism Prostacyclin - Inhibits adherence of platelets to blood vessel wall Fibrin Threads - Absorbs thrombin Antithrombin in Plasma - Interferes with the action of thrombin Heparin from mast cells and basophils - Interferes with the formation of prothrombin activator

Diapedesis

Squeezing of leukocytes between the cells of blood vessel walls

Leukopenia

Too few white blood cells in the blood. Such a deficiency could may accompany typhoid fever, influenza, measles, mumps, chickenpox, AIDS, or poliomyelitis. Could also result from anemia or lead, arsenic or mercury poisoning. (Below 4,500 per microliter of blood)

Leukocytosis

Too many white blood cells in the blood. Could indicate acute infection such as appendicitis. Also possible is vigorous exercise, emotional disturbances and a great loss of body fluids. (Above 10,000 per microliter of blood)

Neutrophils

Type of phagocyte white blood cell, that have fine cytoplasmic granules that appear light purple with a combination of acid and base stains.

Globulins

Type of protein in blood plasma. Makes up about 36% of the plasma proteins and can be further subdivided into alpha, beta and gamma globulins. The liver synthesizes alpha and beta globulins which transport lipids of fat-soluble vitamins. Lymphatic tissues produce the gamma

Monocytes

Type of white blood cell that is a phagocyte, the largest blood cells, two to three times greater in diameter than red blood cells

Lymphocytes

Type of white blood cell that provides immunity; B cell or T cell. The smallest of the white blood cells, has a large round nucleus. Lymphocytes carry out the immune response.

Serotonin

Vasoconstrictor that blood platelets release when blood vessels break, controlling bleeding. Also a neurotransmitter.

Identify the three dietary factors affecting red blood cell productions and state the source and function of each

Vitamin B12 , source: absorbed from small intestine, function: DNA synthesis Iron - source: absorbed from small intestine; conserved during red blood destruction and made available for reuse, function: hemoglobin synthesis. Folic Acid - source: absorbed from small intestine, function: is DNA synthesis

Distinguish between oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin

When hemoglobin combines with oxygen, the resulting oxyhemoglobin is bright red; when the oxygen is released the resulting deoxyhemoglobin is darker.

Leukocytes

White blood cell

Eosinophils

White blood cell containing cytoplasmic granules that stain with acidic dye.

Basophils

White blood cell containing cytoplasmic granules that stain with basic dye

List the events that lead to erythroblastosis fetalis

Woman becomes pregnant with second Rh-positive child, the anti-Rh antibodies cross the placental membrane and destroy the fetal red cells. The fetus then develops the condition Erythroblastosis Fetalis.

Identify the major components of the blood

plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets

Red blood cell destruction

1. Squeezing through the capillaries of active tissues damages red blood cells. 2. Macrophages in the spleen and liver phagocytize damaged red blood cells. 3. Hemoglobin from the red blood cells is decomposed into heme and globin. 4. Heme is decomposed into iron and biliverdin. 5. Iron is made available for reuse in the synthesis of new hemoglobin or is stored in the liver as ferritin. 6. Some biliverdin is converted into bilirubin. 7. Biliverdin and bilirubin are excreted in bile as bile pigments. 8. The globin is broken down into amino acids metabolized by macrophages or released into the blood.

Thrombus

A blood clot abnormally forming in a vessel or blood clot remains where it forms in a blood vessel

Nonprotein Nitrogenesis Substances (NPNs)

A nitrogen-containing molecule that is not a protein

Erythroblasts

A red blood cell at an immature stage

Distinguish between a thrombus and an embolism

A thrombus is a blood clot abnormally forming in a blood vessel, while emboli continue to move until they reach narrow places in vessels where they may lodge and block blood flow, causing an embolism.

Embolus

Blood clot or gas bubble carried in the circulation that may obstruct a blood vessel

Coagulation

Blood clotting

Thrombin

Blood-clotting enzyme that catalyzes formation of fibrin from fibrinogen

White Blood cell

Cell that helps fight infection; leukocytes

Interleukins

Class of immune system chemicals (cytokines) with carried effects

Identify the major events in the extrinsic and instrinsic blood clotting mechanism

Extrinsic Blood Clotting Mechanism: Damage to vessel or tissue > Tissue Thromboplastin > Prothrombin activator > Prothrombin to thrombin > Fibrinogen to fibrin. Intrinsic Blood Clotting Mechanism: Blood contacts foreign surface > Hageman factor > Prothrombin activator > Prothrombin to Thrombin > Fibrinogen to fibrin.

Plasma

Fluid portion of circulating blood. Plasma is a complex mixture that includes water, amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, hormones, electrolytes and cellular wastes.

Serum

Fluid portion of the coagulated blood

Biliverdin

Greenish bile pigment produced from hemoglobin breakdown

Deoxyhemoglobin

Hemoglobin that does bind oxygen

Reticulocytes

Immature red blood cell that has a network of fibrils in its cytoplasm

Fibrin

Insoluble, fibrous protein formed from fibrinogen from blood coagulation

Positive Chemotaxis

Movement of a cell toward the greater concentration of a substance

Creatine Phosphate

Muscle biochemical that stores energy

List five types of white blood cells and state their functions. Distinguish the agranulocytes and granulocytes

Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, Monocytes and Lymphocytes.

Agranulocytes

Nongranular leukocyte

Packed Cell Volume (PCV)

Number of red blood cells in millimeters per 100 mL of centrifuged blood

Bilirubin

Orange bile pigment produced from hemoglobin breakdown

Hemoglobin

Oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells

Immunity

Resistance to the effects of specific disease-causing agents

Hemostasis

Stoppage of bleeding

State the life expenctancy of red blood cells and outline the major events in their production and destruction

The average life span of a red blood cell is 120 days. Red blood cell formation usually occurs in the yolk sac, liver and spleen in a fetus and in an adult in the red bone marrow.

Distinguish between agglutinogen and agglutinin

The clumping of red blood cells when testing blood compatibility or resulting from a transfusion reaction is called agglutination. This is due to a reaction between red blood cell surface molecules called antigens, formerly called agglutinogens and protein antibodies formerly called agglutinins, carried in the plasma.

Hematocrit (HCT)

The percentage by volume of red blood cells in a sample of whole blood

Stem Cells

Undifferentiated cell that can divide to yield two daughter stem cells or a stem cell and a progenitor cell