Bio 286 Exam 3

What is allelopathy? Be able to provide an example.

- Allelopathy - the production of chemicals that are toxic to other individuals growing nearby - Creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) and creosote leads to regular dispersion pattern (poison in roots) - Black walnut (Juglans nigra) and juglone

Type I: Be able to plot each functional response curve (including properly labeled axes) and explain why each has the shape it does.

- Assumes that consuming food does not interfere with searching for food. - Small, easy to find and handle prey items, i.e. herbivores - predator: straight diagonal upwards - prey: straight horizontal line

What are the color morphs of the harlequin ladybird beetle (Harmonia axyridis) and what are the costs and benefits associated with each morph? How does selection on these affect their regional and temporal distribution?

- Color polymorphism in harlequin ladybird beetle (Harmonia axyridis) - Melanistic forms -Darker bodies -Higher heat absorption -Higher body temperatures

What is the current status of the American flamingo? What is the argument for changing that status?

- Currently considered non-native; free-ranging individuals assumed to be birds escaped from captivity - Had been hunted to near extinction in early 1900's (bottleneck) - Scientists at Zoo Miami used natural history reports, museum specimens, and birder sightings to propose the bird is a native Florida species (Whitfield, S et al. 2018. Condor, 120(2):291-304) - Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission will evaluate their status by 2020 - If re-listed, may have threatened or species of concern status (currently IUCN species of least concern)

Why can phenotypic plasticity be adaptive or maladaptive?

- Development of different phenotypes in different environments by the same genotype (phenotypic plasticity - phenotype x environ) - Reaction norm: A range of all possible phenotypes that one genotype can produce - Not all phenotypic plasticity is adaptive - Some phenotypic changes may reflect the detrimental effects of a poor environment (e.g., stunted growth) or may be maladaptive in the particular environmental conditions - Maladapted trait may be selected against, but it is not eliminating underlying genes if they are plastically expressed

What evidence suggests that phenotypic variation in the beetle may be both genetically determined and phenotypically plastic?

- Genetic adaptation leads to the differences in frequencies of the melanistic forms - In space: nonmelanistic forms are more common in hotter climates, while melanistic forms increase in frequency in cooler climates (black carapace retains heat) - In time: Melanistic forms predominate in the winter - nonmelanistic forms in the summer

What is the IUCN and what is its Red List?

- International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) - Established in 1948 to protect nature globally, including saving habitat as well as species, and encouraging education programs - Consults with governments and non-governmental organizations (NGO's) - Publishes 'Red List' of threatened and endangered species worldwide, especially those at risk of extinction

What is an invasive species and what characteristics make certain species successful invaders?

- Introduced species that has the potential to rapidly expand its range, due in part to lack of natural predators or pathogens - Example: Harlequin ladybird beetle (Harmonia axyridis) considered to be one of the world's most invasive insects

What is diffuse coevolution? How is it different from reciprocal coevolution.

- Multiple species within community exert selective pressures on each other - Therefore more difficult to quantify because results cannot be attributable to specific pairwise interactions (e.g. insect feeds on variety of plants. Each plant species develops own defenses which may then deter a variety of insects)

What are brood parasites? Why may they be members of the same species or different species?

- Organisms that lay their eggs in the 'nest' of another individual - Parasitized 'host' raises offspring that they are not the parents of - Intraspecific brood parasitism: eggs laid in the nest of individuals of the same species (sometime referred to as egg dumping); e.g. tree hopper (Publilia concave) will oviposit eggs in the nest of another female to increase her fitness -Interspecific brood parasitism: eggs laid in the nest of individuals of a different species, e.g. cowbirds, cuckoos, brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater)

Many parasites increase the mortality rate of their hosts. How can this affect population demography - consider using the red grouse as an example.

- Parasitism may affect dynamics at all levels of ecological hierarchy - Individual: increase in fitness of parasite causes decrease in fitness of host - Population: Red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) hunted at 2 control sites where population crashes regularly appeared due to a parasitic nematode and at 2 sites where grouse were treated with antihelmintic drug when populations were predicted to occur

Type III: Be able to plot each functional response curve (including properly labeled axes) and explain why each has the shape it does.

- Prey are difficult to find at low densities, and take a long time to handle (eat), so consumption rate plateaus; i.e. shrews eating fly larvae - predators consuming prey: S-curve (plateau) - prey consumed by predators: increase then sharp decrease (pyramid-like)

Type II: Be able to plot each functional response curve (including properly labeled axes) and explain why each has the shape it does.

- Prey are easy to find, but take a long time to handle (eat).i.e. wolves hunting caribou so consumption rate diminishes despite increasing prey populations.i.e. wolves hunting caribou - predator: slow increase then greater increase, then deceleration (ingestion will plateau) - rounded mound curve upwards - prey: hockey stick downwards

Consider the niche data Robert McArthur collected on five species of warblers. Can it be used to argue for or against the law of limiting similarity? Explain.

- Yes, because the birds show that different species can partition the environment (in this case, a tree) to prevent niche overlap. - Competitive networks increase the potential for coexistence, but cannot prevent competitive exclusion when niches are too similar

We can propose hypotheses for the composition of communities. One is the niche based model. What is this hypothesis and what does it predict?

- biological processes such as competition shape niches of coexisting species and determine the community composition. - Hypothesis- niches are hyperdispersed in niche space to minimize niche overlap

What is character displacement and how does competition contribute to its occurrence? Be able to provide an example.

- species in sympatry are selected for minimized niche overlap, selecting for shifts in phenotypic values between species. (not seen in allopatry). - example is African tinkerbird species, when they are alone, the frequency ranges of their song is similar, but when they occupy the same community the frequencies vary.

Prey have evolved a variety of adaptations to avoid depredation, including crypticity. Three type of crypticity are color-matching, countershading, and breaking up the outline. Be able to explain what each is and how it is adaptive.

-Color matching (flounder borrows in sand) -Break up the outline (make harder to distinguish/track) -Countershading: different dorsal vs. ventral coloration (aerial predator cant see from top, benthic predator cant see from bottom)

Know generally the history of Indiana Dunes National Park.

1899- protection efforts began 1916- proposed national park distinction, but efforts halted due to WWI 1925- achieved state park status 1966- achieved national lakeshore status Nov 2017- US house voted to promote Dunes to national park status Designation national park Feb 15, 2019. One of 61 national parks in 27 states and considered one of most biodiverse areas in north america

What data demonstrate that A. barbata is a superior competitor to A. fatua? Compare the strength of intraspecific competition for each species.

A. Barbata is a superior competitor to a. Fatua, because the dewitt replacement series show that a. Barbata is less affected by intraspecific competition with its own species than a. fatua. •At 64, the number or A. fatua per pot is equal to the number of A. barbata per pot, so interspecific competition can be assessed •At 128, the plant species is only competing with other members of its species •A. fatua competes better against A. barbata•A. barbata competes worse against A. fatua •A. barbata is less affected by intraspecific competition relative to A. fatua

What is the difference between a fundamental and a realized niche?

Abiotic environmental tolerances contain the fundamental niche, which is the range of niche dimensions a species is capable of inhabiting. Realized niche (biotic interactions) are the niche dimensions a species is actually observed in.

Even in areas with abundant surface water, groundwater may become limiting. How could this occur?

As groundwater is removed and not replaced, saltwater can intrude on the aquifer. If saltwater is able to reach the well, then the groundwater is almost not viable.

Energy may be introduced into aquatic systems in two different ways. Be able to distinguish between autochthonous and allochthonous sources of energy and why each is important.

Autochthonous sources- sources of energy from photosynthesis within the aquatic system Allochthonous sources- nutrients and organic materials derived from terrestrial systems (leaf litter, run-off, etc.)

What is the gut microbiome?

Bacteria that inhabit the intestinal tract- healthy adults have over 1000 species of bacteria.

What are barnacles and what different life stages do they have? What type of reproductive system do they have and how is reproduction able to occur in these sessile organisms?

Barnacles- marine crustaceans that filter feed, are sessile as adults (secrete proteins to help cement bodies to substrate), and have two free-swimming larval stages (nauplius and cyprid). Nauplius feeds and grows, while cyprid is the non-feeding dispersal stage which makes settlement decisions based on substrate characteristics. They are hermaphrodites that reproduce sexually (outcrossing). Fertilization is internal and they have both male and female reproductive organs.

We discussed the climax community as one that is stable and will replace itself. Why might that replacement change over time?

Climax communities can vary based on contemporary climatic conditions.

What are coastal dead zones and why do they occur?

Coastal dead zones occur from nitrogen pollution in estuaries, which causes eutrophication. This causes a dense growth in plant life, which would cause animal death due to lack of oxygen (hypoxia).

What is coevolution and why does it require reciprocal selection pressure by each interacting species on the other? It can be one of two types, mutualistic or antagonistic. Be able to distinguish between these and provide an example of each.

Coevolution - the reciprocal selective pressures and responses exhibited by interacting species Selective pressures on predator: -be faster -be sneakier -detect prey form further away -weapons Selective pressures on prey: -be faster -be less easy to see -detect predator form further away -defense weapons -be unpalatable -take a long time to handle (i.e. shells) -Mutualistic: each species receives a benefit from the interaction (e.g. plants and pollinators) -Antagonistic: one species suffers a negative effect from the reciprocal selection, leading to an evolutionary arms race (e.g. hosts and parasites; predator and prey and upcoming, the Red Queen Hypothesis)

What is commensalism? Be able to provide an example.

Commensalism is when one species benefits from a coevolutionary relationship, and the other one has a neutral effect. An example of this is cattle egrets and epizoochory (dispersal of plant spores).

Be able to describe examples of how parasites can affect community composition and ecosystem changes. Consider the trematode C. lingua and the snail L. littorea, and the Rinderpest virus and ungulates in your examples.

Community: - Composition may change - Example: Cryptocotyle lingua trematode infects periwinkle snail Littorina littorea - Infected snails: have lower heat tolerance, reduce feeding rates on algae, and alter habitat use to bring them closer to the water (making it more likely they will be consumed by fish, which will then be ingested by their definitive bird host) - Algae populations increase, altering intertidal communities Ecosystem: - Rinderpest: highly contagious viral disease of cattle and other ungulates caused by Rinderpest morbillivirus - Serengeti: Pan-African rinderpest pandemic in 1890's killed large proportions of wildebeest, giraffe and buffalo, and cattle populations - Reduced grazing led to increase in uneaten grass - Resulted in larger fires; suppresses establishment of larger trees

If instead you found that the organisms were widespread on a phylogenetic tree, what would you hypothesize was a major selective force acting on the assembly of that community? Why?

Competition, because the characters would end up dispersed on a phylogenetic tree (example: desert granivore guild and size ratios).

What is coral bleaching and what are its negative consequences?

Coral bleaching occurs when zooxanthellae (photosynthetic algae) that provide essential nutrients to corals die or leave. It increases stress on corals; bony fish have a reduced sense of smell, which disrupts swimming patterns and ability to detect predators.

What were Cowles' and Clements' contributions to the concept of succession?

Cowles studied plant community changes on sand dunes in Indiana and published his thesis. Clements proposed climax community concept.

What are cyanobacteria and how are they involved in eutrophication?

Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic bacteria that: produce chlorophyll a, originated about 2.8 bya, can fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia or nitrate used by plants, and can pollute bodies of water by producing toxins. They can create toxic algal blooms, supplied by high nitrogen levels of run-off. Blooms are harmful because of the toxins cyanobacterium produce.

Toxicity is another antipredator adaptation. What is it and why is it adaptive? Be able to provide two examples.

Defenses of prey species: production of toxic substances (recall allelopathy) - toads - monarchs - tobacco plant (sticky leaves from nicotine)

What is a dispersion pattern? Identify three types of patterns and be able to provide an example for each.

Dispersion pattern- spatial distribution of individuals in a population. The three types of patterns are: random (neutral interactions, random distribution of resources), clumped (positive interactions, attraction to common resources, limited dispersal), and regular (aggressive interactions, territoriality)

What are ecotones? Be able to recognize and provide examples.

Ecotones are physical barriers between different types of habitats, and they can be abrupt (e.g. between river and bank) or gradual (e.g. altitudinal change in habitat type). They can limit distribution of a species or act as a selective pressure for diversification in a species.

What are other examples of invasive species in Indiana and why do they pose an ecological threat?

Emerald ash borer - Introduced into the US by hitchhiking on wooden crates or pallets from Asia, and had probably been resident in this country for 10 to 15 years before being discovered - Larvae burrow and form s-shaped tunnels under the bark, disrupting energy flow within the tree - Damage to trees caused by the larvae can kill them within one to four years - The aerial (top) portions of the tree die back, causing thinning, and branches often sprout from the tree below the area of infestation Burning Bush - from asia 1860s - red fall leaves for landscapers - seeds easily dispersed by birds - grow thick allong edge habit excluding native species Zebra Mussel - Sexually mature at 1 or 2 years; live 4-5 yrs. - Require 20 ppm calcium in water for growth and 35 ppm for reproduction - Females may produce 3 x 104 -106 eggs per spawning season - Densities up to 7 x 105 per m2

Increases in atmospheric CO2 are leading to ocean acidification. How do carbonic acid, bicarbonate (HCO3-) and H+ get produced? As ocean pH levels have dropped by approximately 0.1 pH unit, the saturation of seawater with calcium carbonate has decreased. How does the carbonate produced? Why is this detrimental to some marine organisms?

Equation: CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3 -> H^+ + HCO3^- -> 2H^+ + CO3^2- CO2 dissolves and combines with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions (HCO3^-) Bicarbonate may then dissociate into hydrogen and carbonate ions (CO2^2-). As ocean pH decreases, less bicarbonate is converted to carbonate ions. This is detrimental because calcium carbonate saturation decreases, which is a threat to organisms whose bodies are composed of calcium carbonate. Bivalves, corals, etc, cannot generate skeletons, resulting in mortality.

What is eutrophication? How can birds contribute to it?

Eutrophication- excessive enrichment of nutrients into bodies of water due to high nutrient run-off from agricultural and urban activity. Ornithological eutrophication: when nutrients are contributed to bodies of water from waste products of migrating fowl.

As different species compete over a limiting resource, they may carry it out in slightly different ways. Explain the differences between exploitation, interference and pre-emptive competition and be able to provide an example of each.

Exploitation competition - One species reduces the amount or availability of the limiting resource. (eg soil nutrients) Interference competition - One species actively inhibits another from obtaining the resource. (Example: space and settlement opportunities) Preemptive competition - A mechanism that ensures access to the limiting resources (e.g., early establishment in a resource-rich area), Example: competition for sunlight

Be able to explain the concepts of facilitation, tolerance, and inhibition and apply them to succession.

Facilitation- applies if disturbance produces a physical environment where colonization and survival are especially difficult Tolerance- species replacement occurs when new species more tolerant of new conditions replace earlier species (primary and secondary succession) Inhibition- species to colonized disturbed site and resist invasion by other species (climax communities)

In order for an animal to kill and consume another organism, there are certain costs involved associated with energy and/or time. What are at least three of these?

Factors that influence predation rates: •Search time/identifying prey •Pursuit •Capture •Handling •Ingestion •Processing

What are examples of different types of resources organisms may compete over?

Food, territory, mates

What is garlic mustard and why has it been such a successful invasive? Who is it competing with?

Garlic mustard is a biennial invasive species introduced to New York in 1860s. It provides no nutritional value to wildlife, and it shades out other plants and reproduces earlier than native species. It produces a chemical sinigrin toxic to soil fungi, and is deleterious to tree species with symbiotic bacteria in root nodules. It can disrupt other plants' abilities to form beneficial relationships with soil microbes.

Water patterns in the oceans circulate in gyres - what are these and how does water temperature change within each?

Gyres are large circulating water patterns in the oceans associated with winds. There are 5 gyres. The warmer water from the equator circulates toward the south pole, then it cools and travels back up.

If you collected data on the organisms in a community and found that they clustered together on a phylogenetic tree, what would you hypothesize was a major selective force acting on the assembly of that community? Why?

Habitat filtering, because physiological tolerance of abiotic conditions (characteristics to survive) would be clustered on a phylogenetic tree.

Diversity at one trophic level in a community can influence diversity at another trophic level in the community. For example, differences in the evolutionary relatedness of members of a plant community can influence the diversity of insects that feed on the plants. What trend did Weiblen et al. (2006) observe? What does this mean?

Herbivore communities (insects) are structured by host communities. Similarity in herbivores will decrease as phylogenetic distance among species they graze on (plants) increases.

The size of dead zones in the Gulf of Mexico have fluctuated dramatically between 2017 and 2020. What factors might have contributed to this variation?

In 2018, a smaller dead zone could be due to storms which disturbed waters and circulated oxygen to depleted areas, or strong winds which pushed hypoxic water to the east. In 2019, a larger dead zone could be due to hurricane Barry, which may have mixed water column over Louisiana shelf, disrupting the hypoxic zone prior to sampling. In 2020, a larger dead zone could be due to Hurricane Hanna just prior to NOAA sampling.

Sexual reproduction carries evolutionary costs - what are they?

In order to pass down the same amount of alleles in sexual reproduction as asexually, you need to have twice as many offspring. Also there are costs of having a male since he cannot pass his genes as easily as a female.

We will continue to think about competition among members of a community. How would you describe the difference between a linear competitive hierarchy and a network of competitive interactions?

In the network of competitive interactions, all species can be dominated, but also dominate another. In a linear competitive hierarchy, the first species can only dominate, and the last species can only be dominated.

Why is the harlequin ladybird beetle (Harmonia axyridis) found in the US, if it is native to Asia?

It is an invasive species less vulnerable to parasitism by green-eyed wasp, which oviposits in adult beetle and introduces a virus. A larvae will hatch out of the ladybug while a virus invades its brain and turns it into a "zombie" to guard larvae while it hatches; the invasive species is also less susceptible to a fungus.

What is a DeWit replacement series experiment? Why was it used to look at the effects of interspecific vs. intraspecific competition in the two oat species?

It plots a constant total density of plants. Plots may contain 2 or more species with proportions of species differing in each pot. Plotting the series can predict when intraspecific competition= interspecific competition.

What is kleptoparasitism? Do kleptoparasites fit the definition of a parasite?

Kleptoparasitism is when an individual steals resources from another, typically food. They do fit the definition of a parasite because they are benefitted at the expense of the other individual they stole from, without immediately killing them.

Within bodies of water, flow rates vary, and this in turn influences the distribution and abundance of organisms in these areas. Be able to distinguish between lentic and lotic flow and what the primary photosynthesizers are in each.

Lentic systems are non-flowing water systems (ponds and lakes) with primary producers of phytoplankton (floating photosynthetic bacteria and algae). Lotic systems are flowing systems (streams and rivers) with primary producers of periphyton (attached algae, bacteria, protists, etc. that form a biofilm).

What is meconium?

Meconium- first stool that a baby produces, comprised of ingested materials from in utero (intestinal epithelial cells, amniotic fluid, lanugo, bile, water, and mucus)

What are microcystins and why are they a threat to living organisms?

Microcystins are a toxin produced by cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa at high nitrogen and temperature levels; they are a threat to the kidney, liver, and reproductive tissues of living organisms.

Why are double-crested cormorants observed in Indiana?

Migratory flocks began appearing on Wabash River migrate to canadian mating grounds from South

What evidence suggests that plants and insect pollinators have a long-term coevolutionary relationship?

Morgan's sphinx moth has an extended proboscis for pollination. Darwin's orchid in Madagascar has a long spur, which Darwin predicted must be pollinated by a pollinator with a long proboscis.

Mimicry is yet another antipredator adaptation. What is it? There are two different types - Mullerian and Batesian. Explain the difference between the two and explain why each is adaptive.

Mullerian mimicry: groups of species that have similar coloration and are ALL poisonous/harmful, i.e. hymenoptera (bees/wasps), millipedes, butterflies, frogs(learns to avoid one, avoids them all) Batesian mimicry: non-harmful species whose coloration looks similar to actually harmful speciesi.e. milk snakes (recall frequency dependent selection)

What is a mutualistic ecological interaction? What is the difference between a facultative and an obligate mutualism? Be able to provide an example of each.

Mutualism- each species receives a benefit from the interaction Facultative mutualism- populations persist in the absence of a mutualist. Example: banksia spp. in australia are pollinated by birds mammals and insects, and may reproduce asexually Obligate mutualism- populations go extinct in absence of other mutualist. Example: yucca plant depends on yucca moth for pollination and moth depends on plant seeds for food.

How does the oxygen concentration in water compare with that in air?

Oxygen solubility and diffusion rates are lower in water than in the air. In short, oxygen concentrations in the air are much higher.

What are simple and complex life cycles? Describe an example of each. What is the difference between the intermediate and the definitive host of the parasite?

Parasites can have complex life cycles Example: trematodes exploit different environments; sexual reproduction occurs in definitive host

What are parasites? What is the difference between ecto- and endoparasites?

Parasitism: an obligate relationship for parasite - Organisms that obtain energy from the tissue of another living organism(s), the host(s), but does not result in immediate death - Ectoparasite: live on the host (skin, hair, sebaceous glands, or external orifices) - Endoparasite: live in the host - Pathogens: microorganism or virus capable of causing disease

In their paper on experimental coevolution, Morran et al. used evolving and non-evolving populations of the bacteria Serratia marcesens to look at outcrossing rates in Caenorhabditis elegans. How did their experimental results differ between outcrossing in C. elegans that were reared with co-evolving bacteria versus non-evolving bacterial strains? What conclusions did they draw?

Pathogen (bacteria) may induce mortality within 24hr after ingestion by the host (c. elegans). In the experiment, the control had no exposure to pathogen; evolution has repeated exposure to non-evolving strains of pathogen; coevolution had repeated exposure to evolving strain of pathogen that can become even more infective. It shows that c. elegans exposed to an evolving parasite will increase the rate of outcrossing. It shows parasitic relationships can be an important selecting force on sexual reproduction.

What is phosphogypsum and how is it produced?

Phosphogypsum is radioactive waste produced from production of phosphoric acid from phosphate ore (rock), which is then used in fertilizers. The water used to process it contains heavy metals (arsenic, cadmium, mercury, etc) and carcinogens. 5 tons of it are produced per 1 ton of phosphoric acid.

Consider the relationship between snowshoe hares and lynx. What observations suggest that the lynx have exerted selective pressures on the hares? What observations suggest that the hares have exerted selective pressures on the lynx?

Predation: biological interaction where a predator obtains energy by killing and consuming another organism (its prey) Reciprocal selective pressures allows these species to coexist with each other pred: Increased visual acuity (can detect prey from further away) prey: Become harder to see pred: Become quieter at walking/a more stealth predator prey: Become better at hearing

What is the difference between primary and secondary succession? What are examples of each?

Primary- succession follows severe disturbance, conditions are nearly abiotic with no soil, new habitat created. Example- glacier moving Secondary- previously colonized habitat where disturbance occurred, organic layer remains. Example- wildfire

What are red tides and why do they occur?

Red tides occur when protists such as Karenia brevis color the ocean surface deep red. This produces brevetoxins, which cause gastrointestinal and neurological disorders by binding to voltage-gated Na+ in neurons, which is necessary for depolarization in an action potential.

What is a rocky intertidal zone and what are tide pools?

Rocky intertidal zone- rocky shoreline areas along oceans spanning regions of high tide to low tide, and subjected to high disturbances (waves and water level fluctuations). Tide pools- recesses in rock filled with marine organisms.

Relate the results of Connell's competition experiments to fundamental and realized niches for each species.

S. balanoides has the same fundamental and realized niche, while chthalamus has a larger fundamental niche and a smaller realized niche due to competition with the other species.

What is self-thinning in plants and how does it provide evidence for competition?

Self-thinning occurs as a density-dependent effect from intraspecific competition. Plants planted at high densities will have a higher mortality rate relative to low densities. At a higher density, the population size declines but the remaining individuals will grow larger.

The barnacles Semibalanus balanoides and Chthamalus stellatus live in slightly different intertidal zones. What evidence suggests that the distribution of Semibalanus is limited by abiotic conditions but the distribution of Chthamalus is limited by biotic interactions? Explain.

Semibalanus cannot survive in high intertidal zones, but chthalamus can survive in mid to low intertidal AND high intertidal. Chthalamus will only be found in high intertidal zones, and s. Balanoides will only be found in mid- to low tidal zones. In absence of s. Balanoides, chthalamus populations were higher, showing their limitation due to biotic interactions and competition.

How does an infant get colonized by bacteria?

Some bacterial product in amniotic fluid, placenta, and meconium probably from maternal gut, skin colonization by microbes through vaginal birth, and intestine colonized by additional bacteria as baby begins breastfeeding.

Considering niche dimensions, under what circumstances is it more likely that species within a community can coexist?

Species can coexist if resources are abundant and niche overlap is small.

What is succession and what is a seral stage during succession?

Succession- sequential stages in make-up of a community over time following a disturbance. Seral stage- repeatable sequences of community changes specific to environmental circumstances

What are 'ghosts of competition past'?

The current composition of a community reflects past ecological interactions that may no longer be observable, such as former competitive exclusion.

What is the light compensation point in a body of water? What is the region above it called? And what is the region below it called?

The light compensation point in a body of water is the depth at which CO2 produced by respiration exactly balances CO2 fixed in photosynthesis. The region above the LCP is called the limnetic zone, and the region below it is called the profundal zone. Photosynthetic organisms cannot grow in the profundal zone (below the LCP)

What is the Red Queen Hypothesis and how is it applied to coevolutionary phenomena?

The red queen hypothesis is the idea that sometimes evolutionary changes are necessary to stay in the same place. It is applied to coevolutionary phenomena because as two coexisting populations are evolving, they need to continue to change to keep up with each other, such as predator-prey interactions.

What are ocean gyres and how do they contribute to the concentration of marine debris?

There is an accumulation of plastic in all gyres, which is harmful to marine animals ingesting it. The plastic limits light penetration and disrupts photosynthesis by primary producers, limiting productivity.

Abiotic environmental tolerances contain the fundamental niche, which is the range of niche dimensions a species is capable of inhabiting. Realized niche (biotic interactions) are the niche dimensions a species is actually observed in.

There is no overlap in body size between pocket mice, kangaroo mice, and kangaroo rats, which suggests that competition exists. Body size ratios less than 1.5 (similar sized) occurred less frequently by chance than expected, and body size ratios over 1.5 limit niche overlap and allow coexistence

What are spring ephemerals and how is their life history shaped by competition?

They are early appearing plants in woodlands such as spring beauty, trout lily, trillium, toothwort, rue anemone, bloodroot, dutchmans breeches. They have a small time window to grow, flower and set their seed before being shaded out by deciduous trees.

What are mycorrhizal fungi? What benefit do they provide to the plants whose roots they penetrate?

They are fungi who penetrate the roots of plants. It is a mutualistic relationship because they allow the roots to take up more water while they get the carbs that the plant makes through photosynthesis.

The transition between marine and freshwater environments serves many important ecological functions. What are these, and what distinguishes estuaries from salt marshes?

They are where saltwater and freshwater meet, and serve as nursery grounds, migration habitats, and buffers from storms. Estuary- semi-enclosed coastal body of water with a free connection with open sea, found where rivers and all water that had drained into them meet the sea. Salt marshes- coastal wetlands that are flooded and drained by tides, and may have decomposing vegetation.

Why should trees in a temperate forest share carbon, and how do they do it?

They share carbon by transferring it through mycorrhizal fungi. They should share it because there is a mutualistic relationship between the trees and fungi.

How has eutrophication in Lake Erie posed a health risk and what is the Lake Erie Bill of Rights (LEBOR)? What was LEBOR's final fate?

Toxins can contaminate drinking water. LEBOR is the Lake Erie bill of rights that the people of Toledo, OH voted for, and would enact measures to protect Lake Erie. In Feb 2020, a US district judge struck down LEBOR saying it was too vague and gave the city too much power; in May 2020 Toledo dropped its appeal of the ruling, so it was discontinued.

What is a tree line and why do they occur? What biomes does it demarcate?

Tree line- the point above which latitude is no longer suitable for tree growth (due to temperature, moisture, growing season, etc.) It appears at the taiga-tundra transition.

What is an ecological community?

a group of interacting species that co-occur in a particular place. Can be described by composition and structure.

We can propose hypotheses for the composition of communities. One is the neutral model. What is this hypothesis and what does it predict?

communities are random combinations of species physiologically able to live in the same place. Two mechanisms determine species membership in communities: dispersal in ecological time and speciation in evolutionary time. If communities are altered, they do not recover the same structure. Hypothesis- null (communities are randomly assembled). Niches are randomly arranged so some are very similar and others are very different.

What is a biennial?

flowering plant that completes the life cycle in two years

What is the Law of Limiting Similarity?

no two species can coexist for long on the same limiting resource.

How can a predator/parasite/pathogen lead to apparent competition between two prey species? How does the harlequin ladybird beetle benefit from it?

pathogen turns beetle into zombie to take care of wasp baby will be more deadly to native species than introduced species

Where is the Chinese wattle-necked softshell turtle native to? Where is it currently potentially still found in the wild? Why? What conservation dilemma does it pose in that habitat?

•Large, secretive-turtle, native to China and to Vietnam - on the IUCN Redlist for endangered species - Consumed for meat; cartilage of shell is used in Chinese medicine so close to extinction in native habitat• - Introduced to Hawaii in 1850's by Chinese immigrants who provided labor for Hawaii's sugar cane industry - Turtles' populations on the islands of Kauai and Oahu had survived, but is now only found on Kauai. Last found in field in 2011. - May be altering aquatic habitat for native species - Feeds on endemic threatened fresh water snail Erinna newcombi (Newcomb's snail)