BIO 3001 - Final Lab Practical

Grasshopper external anatomy What can still be seen on the abdomen well? How are the eyes structured? What is the thorax like? What is the tympanum used for?

Can still see segmentation on abdomen well -The eyes is interestingly structured and have antennae -The thorax is divided into different areas -The tympanum/tympanic membrane that is for hearing and to vent sound and sense sound -They have joints and legs specific leg structures

Tunicates and cephalochordates are our relatives How many subphyla do chordates have? What do the gills do?

Chordates have 3 subphyla: Vertebrates, tunicates, cephalochordates -related to us as our cephalochordates -The gills are used to feed, not breathe and they are small and thin so they can do gas exchange through their tissues and they end up trapping food where they are able to digest it

Class Scyphozoa What does the class comprise most of? What phase do most jellyfish have and what results? How does the gastrovascular cavity extend? How do they reproduce sexually? What reproductive cycle are they similar to?

Class Scyphozoa comprised of jellyfish -Most jellyfish have: attached polyp phase that grows into a fertilized egg and then it buds to produce new swimming medusae -The gastrovascular cavity extends down and then up into the main bell and the arms have stinging cells and tentacles -The veil has gonads on top Jellyfish are some of the most diverse creatures of the sea, they are invertebrate and got their common name for mesoglea -They can reproduce sexually by releasing sperm and egg -Similar reproductive cycle to obelia, transdifferentiation allows for a polyp to mature into a jellyfish

Class Anthozoa What species are found in the class? What does the coral have on the outside to make the external skeleton and what does it have on the inside? What is the septae and what does it do? How are they important?

Corals and Sea Anemones -The coral you handle is the external skeleton or home in which the polyps sit -Has many folds of its gastrovascular cavity on the inside -The polyps deposit calcium carbonate, CaCO3, to make the skeleton -The ridges, called septae, make folds in the body wall and, internally, create more surface area of the gastrovascular cavity -Coral forms an external skeleton, so that is what you would touch -Corals are important for marine ecosystems - food, protection

Class Pelecypoda What does this class hold? What do these species' muscular feet extend from? What does it look like? What is anything freshwater/marine with 2 shells called?

Derivation of name Pelecypoda - pelecy - axe (as in hatchet) - pod - foot ▪ Includes clams, oysters, mussels, scallops ▪ The muscular foot extends from the body and tapers to a crest so it looks somewhat like an axe blade -Anything that has 2 shells is a bivalve and it can be freshwater/marine

Sexes are separate in amphioxus and fertilization is external What is the female part like (eggs and ovaries)? Male(sperm and testes)?

Eggs and very small -Female: ovaries are ventral to the sides of the pharynx Large eggs are distinctive ovaries -Male: Testes are stained dark and appear stringy. Sperm are very small cells in all chordates.

Crayfish dissection What is used for digestion? What does the feathery structure of the gills do? What is the stomach cavity like compared to the rest of the body? Where are the nerve cords and flexor muscles?

External -Green gland is for digestion -The feathery structure filters water and gets oxygen -The feather-like gills (huge surface area) are buoyant in water -The stomach cavity is lighter than the rest of the body -The digestive gland is in yellow too -The nerve cords runs on the belly and ventral surface and then the flexor muscles runs towards the tails to move the tails

Characteristics of Phylum Cnidaria What are 3 species of the phylum? What are cnidoblasts and where are they found? What is the mesoglea? What do they not have? What is their body symmetry? What is our body symmetry?

Hydras, Jellies and Corals •Stinging cells called cnidoblasts on their tentacles ▪ Cnidoblasts have a trigger that responds to touch and fires the enclosed nematocyst, a harpoon with poison ▪ Mesoglea, a middle jelly, separating the outer ectoderm and inner endoderm differentiated into gastroderm ▪ They do not have a cellular mesoderm, so they are ectoderm and endoderm only ▪ Their body symmetry is radial - they're like a pie with equal slices ▪ Other animals we will study have bilateral symmetry with head and tail ends -We have bilateral symmetry where the right half and left half are mirror images but when we are sliced like a pie, each slice will be different

Sponge Anatomy What are collar cells? What are epithelial/epidermal cells? What are incurrent pores for? What is osculum for? What are amoebocytes for? What are spicules used for? What are buds used as? What are gemmules used as? What are adults? Does the sponge move? And when?

No specific tissues but assortment of different kinds of cells with different attributes A. collar cells - force water through the sponge to get nutrients B. epithelial/epidermal cells - outermost layer C. incurrent pores (incurrent siphons) - openings in which water first enters D. osculum - water exits (excretory) E. amoebocytes - store/digest/transport food and wastes F. spicules - provide some kind of structure to the sponge and keeps it from collapsing G. buds - one of the ways sponges can reproduce asexually is through budding H. gemmules - sponges can also reproduce asexually through gemmules J. adults - have buds on them Some animals only move during their larval or youth stages like the sponge itself attaches to the floor/rock and doesn't move

Protostomes Protostomes development (molluscs, annelids) In cleavage, what do protostomes undergo and in what way are they aligned? What do the embryos become patterned with (on the sides, in the center)? What is found in the same place as the deuterostome? What does the blastospore become in the adult organism?

-Protostomes and deuterostomes have different embryonic stages -In cleavage = Protostomes undergo eight cell stage -This happens in a spiral and determinate alignment- is not on top of the cell underneath it, if you took the bottom half and top half and spun it, you would create a spiral, something would be missing or it may not make it if you take a cell out -These embryos become patterned in a coelom formation with mesoderm on the sides -Archenteron is found at the center and when the solid masses of mesoderm split, they form coelom -The blastopore is found on the bottom in the same place as the deuterostome -The fate of the blastopore: the hole that's created is called a blastopore, organisms that have body cavities are derived differently -The protostome has the blastopore become an opening in the adult organism (mouth)

Adult tunicates (sea squirts) What is the sessile? What is water moved by? What happens to food? What do the microscopic tunicates make up?

-Sessile (attached) filter feeders with incurrent and excurrent siphons -Water is moved by cilia -Food gets trapped in mucus crossing gill slits -Many organisms look very similar like sea cucumber (echinoderm) and sea squirts -Small microscopic tunicates make up a giant sea pickle or colony and they are each bioluminescent

Pulling a bivalve open with tube feet What are tube feet used for sometimes? What happens when there is a slight opening? What happens to partially digested food? How does the starfish consume food? What are starfish known as?

-Some species use their tube feet to open the shells of some mollusks by tiring the adductor muscles -Once there is a slight opening, the starfish slips its stomach between the shells and digests the mollusk in place -Partially digested food is passed to the inside of the starfish where digestion continues -The starfish ejects/sends out its stomach and pulls it stomach back in with food -Starfish are predators, carnivores and they move quite a bit even tho it may be slow

Class Arachnida characteristics What 3 make up this class? How many legs do they have?

-Spiders, mites, and scorpions -2 body regions/segments (cephalothorax and abdomen) -no antennae -4 pairs of legs = 8 legs -terrestrial -1 pair of chelicerae (jaws)

Kingdom Animalia Phylogeny What kind of group are sponges? What do cnidarians have?

-Sponges are an out group with no tissue layers and no symmetry, on their own in their own group -Cnidarians have multiple tissue layers as well as radial symmetry

Phylum Arthropoda What is most easily identifiable and why? What is this phylum known to be? What 4 structures do wasps have? What must happen in order for them to grow?

- Arthro- = joint or jointed (think of arthritis) - poda = foot -Joints are visible/easy to identify because all members of the phylum have an exoskeleton (resides on the outside of the body unlike the other phylums) -- the hard part, made of chitin, is on the outside -Phylum Arthropoda is the most common AND numerous phylum there is, they are well adapted to different ways of life -The wasp has a head, thorax (wings come out of it), abdomen (reproductive organs), and segmentation (helps an organism set up a body part) -To grow, the exoskeleton must be shed -If you're an organism that's growing with the exoskeleton, you have to get rid of it such as a blue crab who shimmies out of its shell (that makes the legs and body)

Starfish dissection What is the digestive gland? What are ampullae?

- Cut along the two sides of an arm, and remove the dorsal surface -The digestive gland with lobes that connect to a central duct fills most of the internal space -Ampullae are on both sides of the white ambulacral ridge

Bilateral Symmetry What do beetles have vs coral/ polyps and hydras? What about sponges? What is the difference between cnidarians and flatworms? How is symmetry determined?

-A beetle has bilateral symmetry -A coral polyp/hydra has radial symmetry -A sponge has no symmetry or tissue layers so they are kind of on their own -The difference between the cnidarians and flatworms is the symmetry (radial to bilateral) -Symmetry is determined by how you would slice something. -Radial symmetry, if you sliced it like a pie. It would give you the same body plan in each piece -Bilateral symmetry is when each slice is a mirror image but only when you slice it directly down like in cephalopods.

Amphioxus with structures labeled What group does amphioxus belong to? What is the oral hood guarded with? What is the cilia? What is the cecum? When humans were embryos, what structure did we have that we don't see now?

-Amphioxus displays all 5 of the unique chordate characteristics -The amphioxus belongs to cephalochordata and has a notochord that runs from the head to tail -The oral hood is guarded with buccal cirri (cheek wisps) -Cilia move a current of water to the mouth and into the pharynx where ascending mucus from the endostyle traps food particles -This collects dorsally in the epipharyngeal groove that transports everything to the intestine -It has a head and cilia around its fin -Its cecum is its stomach and it is followed by an illio-colon ring, intestinem atriopore, anus, and tail -When humans were embryo, there was a tail in us but as an adult, we don't see them -We can cut through as a cross section

Classes of echinodermata What are the 4 classes and what is contained in each?

-Asteroidea - starfish -Ophiuroidea - sea urchins -Holothuroidea - sea cucumbers -Crinoidea - sea lilies

Starfish have radial, indeterminate cleavage and the second (deutero) opening becomes the mouth (stome) What can you see at the 8 cell stage? What can you see at the final stage? What does the first opening become and what does the second opening become?

-At the 8 cell stage, you can see the line through where the cells are directly on top of eachother -In the final stage, the cells crawl up to form the endoderm and mesoderm will create the anus -The first opening becomes the anus and the second opening becomes the mouth

Phylum Echinodermata and Phylum Cephalochordata Starfish are deuterostomes

-Bilaterians: Cnidarians and Protosomes (Worms and insects) -Chordates: vertebrate, tunicates, cephalochordates -Ambulacrarians: Hemichordates and Echinochordates (Starfish are echinoderms) -Everything we have seen are protostomes but starfish have bilateral symmetry even though they don't look like they do

Two Body plans What do cnidaria have and what is each called? What does the mouth/anus lead to in polyps? And what else is found there? What do the tentacles surround and lead to?

-Cnidaria have two body plans where some live as adults in the polyp and medusa and some switch back and forth between different periods of their life -A polyp is an attached stalk w/ mouth surrounded by tentacles (hydra) (Mouth/anus, tentacle, gastrovascular cavity, gastrodermis, mesoglea, epidermis, body stalk) -A medusa is a swimming disc or bell with tentacles hanging around the edge (jellyfish) (gastrovascular cavity, gastrodermis, mesoglea, epidermis, tentacle, mouth/anus) -In polyps, the mouth/anus leads to the interior of the cnidaria called the gastrovascular cavity and there is an epidermis and gastrodermis tissue layer -Some live as adults in either or, or both -The tentacles surround a single opening (mouth/anus) and leads to the interior of a cnidaria in the gastrovascular cavity (found on the top of a polyp and the bottom of a medusa)

Metamorphosis - many do, some don't What 3 undergo complete metamorphosis? What doesn't? How do butterflies do it? What do grasshoppers do?

-Complete metamorphosis: butterflies, moths, mosquitos -No metamorphosis: grasshoppers -The butterfly lays eggs and the eggs hatch into larvae and the larvae find a suitable place to form a cocoon and the emerging adult structures replace some structures to become a butterfly -Grasshoppers just keep shedding their exoskeleton until they reach their final size as they undergo metamorphosis

Class Cestoda - Tapeworms (Genus Taenia) Where do tapeworms live? What are they subject to? What is the scolex and where? What does it produce? How does it produce more? What are many parasites considered?

-Tapeworms live in the intestines of animals ▪ They are subject to peristalsis (intestine contracting and eating food) and to friction of food passing through ▪ The scolex at the head end imbeds in the soft intestinal lining with 4 suckers and an extendible crown of recurved hooks ▪ The scolex generates segments called proglottids ▪ Older segments (proglottids) are bigger and are maturing to reproductive adulthood ▪ Many parasites are hermaphrodites (having both eggs and sperm) since the chance of finding a mate is slim -The head or scolex has a sucker that attaches to the intestinal lining and as it grows, it generates more proglottids

Class Hydrozoa: Hydra In Hydra, what do the tentacles surround? What are the cnidoblasts for? What are 3 characteristics of hydra? What are the buds?

-Tentacles surround the mouth, spiraling bumps are cnidoblasts that sting the food and allow for digestion ▪ Hydra is a freshwater organism ▪ So small it fits on a slide ▪ Hydra can reproduce asexually by budding -The buds are the circular points of the branches - (note the basal disk where the bud is attached) ▪ A small arthropod is being digested in the gastrovascular cavity; the cavity extends into the tentacles and circulates nutrients

Class Hydrozoa - Hydra cross section In hydra, where are the testes and how does it appear? What is its inner circle? Where is the mesoglea found? What do the ovaries surround and contain? What do some hydras have?

-Testes in ectoderm bulge outward and contain tiny sperm cells. In both images, mesoglea is a thin line btwn ectoderm and endoderm -The testes are in the outer purple color with tiny sperm and the inner circle is the gastrovascular cavity -The ovaries surround the entire purple outside in ectoderm and wrap around the body containing large egg cells -Some hydras have both male and female and some have one or the other

Life Cycle of Indirect Parasites What is the difference between an indirect parasite and a direct parasite? What is the first step? What happens in the intermediate host? How does the parasite pass to final host? What can the intermediate host be?

-Differs from a direct parasite because the human host is not the first host, it eats the parasite that came out of a snail/sheep/etc. 1. Fertilized Egg is consumed by an animal, an intermediate host. 2.Egg hatches and larval stage develops and forms a cyst in tissue of intermediate host. 3. Final host eats the intermediate host and ingests the encysted parasite (like eating contaminated meat). Parasite emerges from cyst and develops into mature, reproducing adults in the final/definitive host.[Direct parasites are transmitted directly from one host to another without intermediate stages.] -The cyst lives in that intermediate host and it can be sheep. The host eats the intermediate host.

Earthworms Feeding How do earthworms eat? What do they do when they pass it? What are their intestines filled with?

-Earthworms burrow through soil and eat. They decompose plant and other organic material that is in it and pass the remainder out through the anus.-You may see little piles of dirt crumbs at the openings of worm burrows after rain. -Their intestines are filled with dirt because they eat them

Amphioxus locomotion Is the notochord bendable? What does it do? What 2 things stick out when it burrows under the sand?

-In cross section, you can see the striated muscle on both sides of the stiff notochord (that doesn't bend, it's rigid) (oval with red-stained shreds) that alternately contracts and relaxes to bend the body for swimming and burrowing (tail first) -It burrows into the sand so that only thing sticking out is its mouth and cilia

Crayfish sex - look at the ventral side How are male and female swimmerets different?

-In males the first pairs of swimmerets are stiffened, copulatory organs. -The males and females have different swimmerets (leggish looking things) and the female has a seminal receptacle -In females -> swimmerets are flexible/longer than in males -The eggs will stick to them and the young cling for protection

Planaria Moving and Feeding What does it move on and how? What are the black spots? What are auricles? What is the mouth like? What tissue layers do they have?

-It glides and moves on ventral cilia, twists and bends with muscle •Black spots are eye spots in the front ; helps planaria sense to move away from light •Triangular structures on either side of the head called "auricles" sense touch and some chemicals -The mouth extends from a tube outside the body and they have a pharynx inside to help bite down their food -Has a mesoderm as well as an ectoderm and endoderm that allows them to move better

Class Hirudinea - leeches What are leeches and what are at both ends of them and why? How many segments do they have and what structures do they lack that other worms have? What is their parapodia like? As hermaphrodites, what are the genital openings like? What is the coelomic cavity?

-Leeches are typically dorsoventrally flattened annelids with suckers at both ends- to attach to their prey because they are parasitic -They are characterized by 33 or 34 segments, no chaetae or septa, totally reduced parapodia, unpaired male and female genital openings in the region of the clitellum -Hirudinea are hermaphroditic -Each somite or primitive segment is superficially divided into usually 3-5, but sometimes more than 10, annuli - The coelomic cavity is a contiguous system of channels -They don't have tiny little feet and they're hermaphrodites

Clam Siphons Like adductor muscles, what else rips open when a clamshell is opened? What happens when the mantles meet posteriorly? What else creates a water current? What do clams stick out when they bury themselves and why?

-Like the adductor muscles, the water siphons get ripped a bit when trying to open a clam shell because they are extensions of the mantle -While clam is alive the sides of the mantle meet posteriorly and form two tubes, the large incurrent (ventral) and excurrent (dorsal) siphons that generate the water current that allow the clam to feed of what is passing through - The anus is internal and near the outflowing water • The water current is created by cilia on the gills • When alive, a clam buries itself in the sand or other substrate; the siphons stick out into the water for food and gas exchange and can easily filter out water and be protected from organisms that might try to eat them.

Aequorea victoria and green fluorescent protein What does luminesce mean? What does florescent mean? What was discovered and what happens if you aim blue light? What did they do with the discovery?

-Luminsce: generate their own light -Floresent: generate their own light that it bounces back -The discovery of the green fluorescent protein was made -If you aim blue light, it shines green light back at you -They took the genetic sequence for green fluorescent protein and put it inside the bacteria

Nereis, external anatomy What are many marine worms known as and what do they prey on? What does nereis have (3)? Where are the long setae? What are pseudopods?

-Many marine worms are carnivores- have the machinery to be able to grab and crunch the prey and prey on a variety of invertebrates -Nereis has pinching jaws with a horny covering at the mouth; short sensory palps are present, and tentacles arise on segments immediately behind -Cross section of Nereis ▪ Long setae are embedded in the parapodia of Nereis -The pseudopods are like little feet

Earthworm cross section - muscle What does the body have on the outside (2)? What is found underneath (2)? What happens when the circular layer contracts? What about the longitudinal layer? What 2 processes allow the worm to move? What kind of symmetry do they have and what are they classified as?

-The body of the earthworm has an outer cuticle and epidermis -Under this are circular and longitudinal layers of muscle ▪ When the circular layer contracts the worm gets thinner and compression of fluid makes that section elongate ▪ When longitudinal muscle contracts, the worm gets shorter, and compression of fluid makes that section fatter -These two gestures (peristalsis) and the action of setae allow the worm to move through soil -The muscles are contracting and the setae allow them to move -Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical and are protosomes

Leeches in medicine What is medicinal leech therapy? What do leeches secrete? What effects do they have? What are they used for?

-Medicinal leech therapy is an old technique, that has been studied for possible effects on diseases such as inflammatory diseases, osteoarthritis, and after different surgeries - Hirudo medicinalis has widest therapeutic usage among the leeches, but worldwide, many different species were tested and studied -Leeches secrete more than 20 identified bioactive substances such as antistasin, eglins, guamerin, hirudin, saratin, bdellins, complement, and carboxypeptidase inhibitors -They have analgesic, anti-inflammatory, platelet inhibitory, anticoagulant, and thrombin regulatory functions, as well as extracellular matrix degradative and antimicrobial effects, but with further studies, the spectrum of effects may widen. -They have so many components that help clotting and they are anti-inflammatory and do not cause pain -They are used to help wounds heal and increase blood flow

Class Oligochaeta - earthworms Genus Lumbricus What side is slightly darker? What is the mouth end, tail end, and anus like?

-The dorsal or top side is slightly darker than the ventral side -The mouth end is pointed and conical, and the tail end is dorsoventrally flat -The anus is a vertical slit in the last segment.

Reproduction of Earthworm What does the earthworm have both of? What is seen on the sides of segment 14? Segment 15? What is from segment 31-37? What is secreted around mating individuals?

-The earthworm has both ovaries and testes -The openings of the oviducts can be seen on the sides of segment 14 and those of the sperm ducts, which have swollen edges on segment 15 -The enlarged ring that begins at segment 31 or 32 and ends at 37 is called the clitellum -It is glandular and secretes a slimy mucus around two copulating individuals

Comparative Embryology - Vertebrates What are the embryos holding on to? When do their features come out? What have they already undergone in the embryo stage here? How do all the embryos of vertebrates look?

-The embryos hold on to the ball of fluid filled cavity in their embryo stage -As they continue to develop into bigger younger organisms, their features start to come out -They have already undergone gastrulation in the embryo stage here but they all look the same in the embryo stage (fish, salamander, tortoise, chick, pig, calf, rabbit, human) -Comparing embryos between vertebrates makes it difficult to tell what kind of organism it is -They look strikingly the same

Class Insecta, genus romalea, grasshopper What does the grasshopper have? What leads to tracheae? What is found in the back? What does the tracheae do?

-The grasshopper has a head with sensory organs and mouth parts, a thorax w/ legs and wings, and a segmented abdomen. -Breathing is through spiracles, holes in the exoskeleton of the abdomen that lead to an internal system of tubes called tracheae -There is a big hopper leg in the back -The tracheae carries the air throughout the body and they do have a circulatory system like annelida though they do not have a heart structure, there is vessels

Clam Anatomy What system do molluscs have in complete? What structures are not around the digestive system? What kind of circulatory system do they have, unlike the cephalopods? How are their systems different from Cnidaria and Platyhelminthes?

-Mollusca have a complete digestive system from mouth to anus. The mouth is on one end and anus at the other. •There is no chamber/coelom around the digestive system in the body •The circulatory system is open, and blood travels in open sinuses through the body. It is not enclosed in veins and arteries. They do not have a closed circulatory system because they live in water so they don't need the blood to be kept enclosed of something •Note that circulatory and digestive systems are separate and not combined as in Cnidaria and Platyhelminthes

Cross section of starfish arm What are most starfish composed of? What is the internal skeleton made of? What are gonads? What is happening to the current dissections?

-Most of the starfish are composed of a digestive gland/hepatic coecum that extends down each one of the 5 arms and if we were to slice one of the arms as a cross section, we would see the spines and the tube feet along the ventral surface -The internal skeleton is made of calcium carbonate and makes the base of the lines sticking through their overlying external shell -The gonads (ovaries or testes) that underly them, they are almost impossible to see now because the starfish have been very skinny and don't produce a lot of prodigy

Opened Clam What sticks out of the shell? Why is the shell slightly open sometimes? When does it close? What are ridges used for? What are the adductor muscles used for? What does the mantle do?

-Muscular feet stick out of the shell -Anything with 2 shells = is a bivalve and they can be freshwater or marine -When they are alive and resting, the shell is open slightly so they can filter water and organisms through to feed that way, but when they are attacked or worried, their shells close off -Muscles exert force by contracting •Ridges (teeth) in the hinge area keep the valves from twisting apart -The adductor muscles (posterior and anterior) pull the valves together. They counteract the passive opening action of the ligament and hold the clam shell closed and the gill structure is very thin and the muscular foot is what might protrude out to crawl and move -The mantle attaches and secretes the overlying shell -On the shell, there is room to mark the different places on the shell -The muscle scars hold the shell tightly together.

Amphioxus cross section Where is the dorsal tubular nerve cord? What is the pharynx and where? What does it contain a bunch of? What reproductive structures? What sticks out when it burrows below ground?

-Note the dorsal tubular nerve cord above the notochord -It is dotted with black light-sensitive spots in the anterior part of the amphioxus -The pharynx with endostyle below and epipharyngeal groove above is designed to trap food particles in mucus -The dorsal tubular nerve cord is a pink and the notochord has a dark reddish color -It has a bunch of muscles because it swims -It has testes or ovaries -It burrows down its whole body into the sand and the only thing sticking out is its mouth

Amphioxus pharynx and cecum What are the pharyngeal bars? What is the atrium? What is the atriopore? What is the ilio-colon ring? What do the cells lining the cecum do? What is vertebrate digestion? What is the coelom?

-Pharyngeal bars slant, so a cross section shows them like a necklace of beads -Water exiting from the pharynx is within the animal in a chamber called the atrium -It has a single outlet, the atriopore (anterior to the anus) -To the right of the pharynx is a pink sac with open lumen -It is a cross section of the cecum (liver) -Food particles are spun into it by the ilio-colon ring -Cells lining the cecum do phagocytosis and digestion is intracellular -Vertebrate digestion is in the lumen of the intestine and is extracellular -The lumen of the pharynx and the gill slits -The coelom is the space between the 2 ovaries -It depends where you make the slice to see specific structures like gills

Platyhelminthes are Acoelomate What can planaria do? How long does it take? What structure is not needed to do so? What is the sucker disk used for? As a hermaphrodite, what does it have?

-Planaria regenerate. It takes 14 days to regenerate and the head is not needed to regrow the planaria -In every case of slicing whether it be bilaterally, diagonally, horizontally, we can regrow a brand new planaria -The structure of the body of trematoda is very similar to the planaria -The sucker disk where attaches to things. The gastrovascular cavity doesn't show the digestive tract but the reproductive tract in this specific staining and is simple because the nutrients are from the host. -The hermaphrodite has a lot of eggs to have a successful infection. There are female and male reproductive sites on one body

Cross Section of earthworm What does the intestine do? What does the typhlosole do? What does the cross-section mostly appear to look like?

-The intestine occupies the center of the worm and is separated from the body wall by the fluid-filled coelom A fleshy ridge, the typhlosole, occupies much of the lumen of the intestine and nearly doubles its surface area for secretion/absorption of nutrients -To take a cross section, the intestines would be the center of the worm and separated by a true body cavity -The intestine would not be attached to the other parts of the body -The ventral

Water vascular system is unique to echinoderms What does the madreporite connect to? What does the stone canal connect to? What is the ambulacral ridge?

-The madreporite connects to the stone canal -The stone canal connects to the ring canal which connects to the ambulacral ridge that is studded with ampullae that contract and move the tube feet on the ventral surface

Class Trematoda - Flukes (Genus Opisthorchis) Where is the mouth and what follows? What does the sucker disk do? What do flukes not need to do and why?

-The mouth is at the very narrow end, followed by the branched gastrovascular cavity, basal sucker disk to attach to things, uterus (w/ eggs), and testes -The reproductive organs are shown in the staining -It does not need to mate with another fluke to undergo reproduction because it has both reproductive parts -The dark red is the uterus filled with eggs -And the very end with branches or arms is the testes

Internal anatomy of starfish What is the mouth? What are the ducts? What is fertilization like? Where is the stomach?

-The mouth is in the center on the ventral side. -It leads to a stomach -Ducts from the digestive glands carry enzymes to it -Note the presence of gonads radiating out from the center -In most species males and females are separate and fertilization is external -The stomach is along the arms and the anus is coming out of a similar area

Amphioxus leads a sedentary life What does the mouth do? What kind of symmetry does an animal have if it swims like a fish? What structure burrows first?

-The mouth sticks out to filter food from the water -You might expect a bilaterally symmetrical animal capable of active swimming to be like a fish -Not amphioxus -It burrows tail-first into the substrate and, with only the oral hood sticking out, filters food from water.

Planaria Anatomy What extends out across the body of the organism? What do planaria not have? What is the anterior and posterior? What is on the dorsal surface? What is on the ventral surface? What helps move the food? What is the Acoelomate?

-The purple gastrovascular cavity extends out across the body of the organism because the planaria doesn't have a circulatory system so it uses the cavity to spread things throughout the body -Its head is the anterior, tail is posterior -The back, nerve cords, and eyespots are dorsal surface and the belly, pharynx, and mouth is on the ventral surface -Has a rudimentary brain connected to the yellow nerve cords that stretch along the entire body of the organism -The pharynx is lined w/ pharyngeal muscles that help squish and move the food -There are 2 intestinal layers that are stuck to the cells that underlie them. There's no gap between the intestines and rest of the body -Acoelomate: digestive tract is attached to the tissue filled mesoderm. The cavity suspends the digestive tract in the earthworm.

Deuterostome phylogeny Wide in variety

-The urochordates are a presence of notochords and they showing addition of characters from ancestor to mammal -Anything considered an animal is definitely a deuterostome and chordates

Do I have pharyngeal gill slits and bars? What 2 structures did humans have in embryonic development? In a lower chordate, what do gills become? In humans, what do they become? What is the homologous structure?

-You had a tail in embryonic development, and you also had gills I-III (mandibular arch) -They are under the head and in the head and neck region -Embryos had tails and also had gill structures that move into the head to form all of these structures (ears, jaws) -In a lower chordate, they become phylogeny gill slits and in us, they become parts of our heads and necks called pharyngeal bars become bony and cartilaginous elements of the head and neck -We can have a homologous structure that has different functions, this is a similar situation where the pharyngeal bars become gill slits in amphioxus but the head and neck cartilage for us

Life Cycle of Taenia What is the first host and what do they ingest? How do the tapeworms reach humans and what is a telltale sign you have them?

1. Eggs or gravid proglottids in feces and passed into environment 2. Cattle and pigs become infected by ingesting vegetation contaminated by eggs or gravid proglottids - They may eat something from the feces of another animal or from the dirt and develops a cyst inside of the muscle of the pig or meaty animal 3. Oncospheres hatch, penetrate intestinal wall, and circulate to musculature 4. Oncosperes develop into cysticerci in muscle and humans are infected by ingesting raw or undercooked infected meat 5. Scolex attaches to intestine 6. Adults in small intestine. People who are infected with tapeworm lose a lot of weight and they eat the raw meat that has been contaminated

Opisthorchis Life Cycle Who is the first host and what do they consume? What does the first host do that allows it to be passed on? Who is the final host and how do they get the parasite?

1. Embryonated eggs passed in feces 2. Eggs are ingested by the snail and Undergoes its development into a larger seed inside of a snail 3. Free-swimming cercariae encyst in the skin or flesh or fresh water fish - Free living larvae swim through the water and are eaten by fish 4. Metacercariae in flesh or skin of fresh water fish are ingested by human host - and then people eat this contaminated fish and become infested with liver flukes 5. Excyst in duodenum and become adults in biliary duct

Phylum Chordata Unique features shared by all chordates What is the notochord? What is the dorsal tubular nerve cord? What is the pharynx? What is the post-anal tail? What is the endostyle/thyroid gland?

1. Notochord - a stiff flexible structure in the dorsal midline of the body, on the back 2. Dorsal tubular nerve cord - central nervous system in the midline dorsal to the notochord 3. Pharynx with gill slits 4. Post-anal tail 5.Endostyle/thyroid gland - in cephalochordates, it secretes digestive enzymes into the pharynx and ended up evolving into a thyroid gland in us humans

Starfish Development Ovum to Four-cell stage What are the 4 steps? What do we start out with and what happens to it? What happens in every division? What is found in the blastula?

1. Ovum (egg) -> 2. Fertilized Egg -> (divides into) 3. Two-cell Stage --> (divide perpendicularly) 4. Four-cell stage -We start out with an egg (ovum) that gets fertilized, and divides into two cells and then again for four cells -Every round of division is mitosis, as we're dividing the cells are getting smaller and smaller -Ex: Things that have hard shells (insects) really have limited space and can't get bigger than shell -Blastula is a hollow ball of cells. Center is called blastocyst.

Planaria gastrovascular cavity How is the gastrovascular cavity seen in the anterior? How is the gastrovascular cavity seen in the center? How is the gastrovascular cavity seen in the posterior?

Anterior gastrovascular cavity (1 tube), Central muscular pharynx, Posterior 2 gastrovascular cavities -The planarian has been stained and fixed. -The single tube is the anterior and posterior and has a cavity that branches around the pharynx -Taking a slice across the anterior: 1 hole to represent the gastrovascular cavity -Taking a slice in the central: 2 vascular cavities and pharynx -In the posterior, the single gastrovascular cavity branches across the pharynx to create 2 gastrovascular cavities

Starfish external features What kind of symmetry do mature starfish have and what characteristic do they hold? What does the madreporite lead into and what does it do? What is the central disk in the center surrounded by? What is the circulatory system like? What is the ventral surface? What does the ampullae do?

Pentameral (5-fold), radial body symmetry. ▪ Sieve plate of madreporite is off the center but leads into stone canal and to unique water vascular system -Radial symmetry is superimposed on bilateral symmetry -There are a number of interesting external features -Has a central disk in the center surrounded by 5 arms and a small flat circular disk (madreporite) and isn't covered with anything bc it is the opening for water vascular system - circulatory system that's water-based (not blood based) makes the starfish bilaterally symmetrical rather than radially symmetrical -The ventral surface has a stomach in the center with tube feet that move and are located in the ambulacral groove -The ampullae contract and makes the feet move and push the water through the entire body of the starfish

Subphylum Cephalochordata What is an example? Where does the notochord run? In the subphylum Vertebrata, how does the notochord run?

The example of this group is amphioxus (amphi- =both, -oxus = pointed; pointed at both ends) -The notochord runs from the tip of the rostrum to the tip of the tail; it is in the head -In all of the sister Subphylum Vertebrata the notochord ends posterior to the brain and does not extend into the head

Phylum Mollusca What are the 3 classes and what species are found in each?

Three Classes of Molluscs ▪ Pelecypoda or Bivalvia (2 shells) - clams, mussels, oysters ▪ Gastropoda-snails and slugs- have single shells ▪ Cephalopods-squid, octopus, nautilus -have external shells and squids/octopus have internal shells

Class crustacea, Genus Cambarus (crayfish) What is the cephalothorax? What is the thorax and chelipod? What is the abdomen? What is the tail?

Three segmented body regions: 1. Cephalothorax - the head and thorax have a continuous carapace, and there is no moveable neck ▪ The head has sensory structures (compound eyes, antennules, & long antennae) and mouth parts (mandibles that chew from side-to-side, maxillae, and maxillipeds) -There is no neck, and the eyes are on short, moveable stalks ▪ The thorax has a pair of chelipeds with large claws and three pairs of walking legs -The chelipod (big claws) followed by 4 pairs of legs coming out of cephalothorax and then an abdomen and uropod 2. Abdomen - a mass of muscle flexes for scoop- swimming backwards (this is the delicious part) and there are wisp-like swimmerets ventrally 3. Tail - a fan consisting of telson in the middle and uropods lateral to it

But don't deuterostomes have bilateral symmetry? What symmetry do starfish larvae have?

Yes, but starfish larvae have bilateral symmetry -Adults don't share the same characteristics but will at some point in developmental stages -A starfish larva is clearly not radially symmetrical because you can draw a line in half vertically

Opisthorchis is a parasite Where are sucker disks not present? What is the simple gastrovascular cavity used for in flukes? What does it have a huge number of to be successful? What is rich in nutrients?

•Sucker discs-a means of holding on (not present in planaria). ▪Simple gastrovascular cavity-nutrients coming from somewhere else (the host) - its surroundings, the liver ▪ Hermaphrodite-has both ovary and testes-the chance of having a mate in the same organ is slight. ▪ Huge numbers of eggs-the probability of any one egg producing an infection is almost nil. ▪The liver is rich in nutrients carried there from the small intestine via the hepatic portal system veins.

The internal anatomy of the clam What else is the mantle used for? What are the gills used for? What is the cilia used for? What are the triangular palps used for?

•The mantle lining each valve deposits the new shell layer -The lateral teeth keep the valve stuck together and down and stops it from twisting apart, you can't just freely rotate the clam, it can only open and close •Gills on each side of the plump body have ridges and pores into the interior that increase surface area for molecular gas exchange -Cilia on their surface create the current that moves the water •Two triangular palps on each side of the mouth sample and gather the food as it passes by and it moves across the shell -As the shell grows, it adds a new ring LIKE trees.

External Anatomy of a Clam What is the umbo? What indicates growth? What is the ligament? What does the clam do at rest?

•The umbo is the point at which the clam first made a shell -New layers are added under and beyond its margin to create growth rings •The dark ligament of protein that runs along the shell, collagen and mineral that is external to the hinge acts as a spring and opens the clam slightly -At rest the clam is open so that it can filter water and feed.

Animal Development and Phylum Cnidaria Kingdom Animalia What are 4 characteristics of Kingdom Animalia? What 2 categories can the kingdom be split into? What species are put together on the bottom of the tree?

▪ Animals are multicellular eukaryotes ▪ Their cells lack chloroplasts: makes them have to feed ▪ Able to move ▪Heterotrophs: can't make their own food ▪ Can be split into two major categories: - Protostomes (all are invertebrates) v. deuterostomes (most are vertebrates and the starfish/urchins are invertebrates) - Invertebrates v. vertebrates Sponges and jellyfish and hydra are in the bottom of the tree of life and are put together as cnidaria. A lot of differences in protostomes and deuterostomes arises in embryonic development

Arthropod classes with examples What are the 5 classes and what species do they contain? What is a difference between insecta and arachnida?

▪ Crustacea-mostly aquatic, includes crayfish, crabs, lobsters ▪Insecta-mostly terrestrial, includes grasshoppers, butterflies, cockroaches ▪ Arachnida-spiders and scorpions ▪ Diplopoda - millipedes ▪ Chilopoda - centipedes -Arachnida have 8 legs but insects have 6

Comparison of diagram with dissection What does the pharynx do? What receives the sperm? What is the heart? What do they have instead of a stomach (2)? What is the nephridia?

▪ Dorsal Internal View ▪ Can't See Pharynx In This dissection but the pharynx takes in food, processes it and swallows it down to esophagus ▪ The sexual organs flank the esophagus. Small spherical seminal receptacles receive sperm -Large seminal vesicles house testes and store sperm for donation. -The mouth and brain start on top -The heart of the worm is enlarged vessels that pump the circulatory system -They don't have a stomach but they have a crop and gizzard -They have a rudimentary kidney and filtration system called nephridia

Grasshopper sex differences What do the female grasshoppers use the claw-like ovipositor for and what about males?

▪ Female grasshoppers use a claw-like ovipositor to dig a short burrow into the earth and are able to deposit their eggs -Males lack this structure

Characteristics of Molluscs What 3 structures do they have? What is the foot useful for? What kind of symmetry? What is the mantle?

▪ Head, body ▪ Bilateral symmetry ▪ The muscular foot in most is single and is used for locomotion and digging. Very powerful and a big characteristic ▪ A tissue called the mantle that secretes the shell

Class Polychaeta - marine worms Genus Nereis What are marine worms characterized by? What are they used for?

▪ Marine worms are characterized by parapodia [para-beside,podia-feet], flaps of tissue on the sides of each segment that are used for locomotion and, with a huge surface area, for gas exchange (gills) -They have parapodia (feet that aren't really feet) that are used for locomotion

Phylum Annelida Annelid Classes What are the 3 classes and what species make up each? What does chaeta mean? What does seta mean?

▪ Oligochaeta - earthworms ▪ Polychaeta-marine worms ▪ Hirudinea-leeches [hirudo=Latin for leech] they've come back to be important in medicine - Chaeta = bristle and derives from Greek for long hair. It is always made of chitin. Oligo = few, poly = many. - Seta = bristle in Latin. It is applied not only to chaetae in worms but also to structures in other kinds of animals.

Annelid characteristics Like molluscs, what system do they have in complete? What is separated by coelom? What divides the body internally? What projects from the body wall? What is in the coelom and what does it create when squeezed?

▪ Outer body tube muscular, separated by coelom from innertube, the digestive system, which runs tip-to-tip from mouth to anus ▪ Segmentation with septa divides the body internally -The partitions appear as annuli on the outside ▪Setae, bristles, project from the body wall ▪ Incompressible fluid in segmented coelom creates hydrostatic skeleton when squeezed by body wall musculature -They have a hydrostatic skeleton that is held up by fluid which fill it

Cephalochordata & Tunicata use gills to feed What are pharyngeal gills? What is the secretory groove? What is cilia? What is the food-laden mucus? What does the larva of jawless fish do?

▪ Pharyngeal gills, a characteristic of all chordates ,are used to trap food from seawater in these two subphylums -A secretory groove in the ventral pharynx, the endostyle, produces mucus -Cilia carry it across the slanting gill slits, and food particles stick to it -The food-laden mucus accumulates on the opposite side of the pharynx, where cilia carry it to the digestive system -Note: all surfaces do molecular exchange, the gills are not for breathing ▪ The larva of a jawless fish, the lamprey, starts out with an endostyle, and then it transforms into the thyroid gland (which also secretes hormones) -The endostyle secretes thyroid hormone in us humans from the start

Class Turbellaria - Genus Dugesia What is planaria? How are they found everywhere? What are most of them known as? What do they eat? What is a common trait of all platyhelmenthines?

▪ Planarian, any of a group of widely distributed, mostly free-living flatworms of the class Turbellaria (phylum Platyhelminthes) ▪Everywhere: planarians occur in freshwater and are sometimes seen in large masses; some species are marine, others are terrestrial ▪ Most are carnivorous night feeders and avoid light -They eat protozoans, tiny snails, and worms ▪All are simultaneous hermaphrodites;i.e., have functional reproductive organs of both sexes occur in the same individual. This is a common characteristic in Platyhelminthes and don't normally live around other organisms to mate

Skeletal growth and regeneration of parts What is the internal skeleton made of? What can starfish do like planaria? What must be present?

▪ The skeleton of CaCO3 is internal, and growth occurs without molting ▪ Starfish can regenerate an arm that is torn off, but the central disc must be present -There are a couple species in which an arm can regenerate the disc. *Planarians also regenerate like starfish but actually are even better with it

Green Fluorescent Protein as a Marker for Gene Expression Where did they observe the bacteria? Why is GFP important to biology? How did they confirm it works in bacteria? How can it be sensed?

-Fig. 1. Expression of GFP in E. coli. The petri dish shows the bacteria on the right side of the figure have the GFP expression plasmid. Cells were photographed during irradiation with a hand-held long-wave UV source. -Fig. 2. Excitation and emission spectra of E. coli-generated GFP (solid lines) and purified A. victoria L form GFP (dotted lines) -Fig. 3. Expression of GFP in a first-stage C. elegans larva. Two touch receptor neurons (ALMR and PLMR) are labeled at their strongly fluorescing cell bodies. Processes can be seen projecting from both of these cell bodies. Halos produced from the out-of-focus homologs of these cells on the other side of the animal are indicated by arrowheads. The thick arrow points to the nerve ring branch from the ALMR cell (out of focus); thin arrows point to weakly fluorescing cell bodies. The background fluorescence is the result of the animal's autofluorescence -GFP is useful in biology because you don't need anything else in the cell, just the marker protein. It helps to study cells in embryos and fetuses during developmental processes -GFP absorbs light around the 400 nanometer wavelength - blue Low 500s, 520ish - green -GFP works in bacteria so they confirmed by injecting it into neurons in the worm to show that it works really well -They have gone on to put GFP in almost everything -They can sense light because they have sensory cells and they have an eyespot There are more than five senses like proprietary reception and they can sense things

Class Gastropoda What does this class include? What do they all have and can do?

-Gastropoda includes snails, which are marine, freshwater and terrestrial + the terrestrial slugs, and the marine nudibranchs. [Gastro - belly or stomach and Poda - foot] -Both terrestrial and marine -They have antennae and they crawl on their belly

Obelia Life Cycle What are the polyps coming off the main stalk? What are they each used for? What is the hanging structure under medusa? After fertilization, what is created? And how does it mature? How does the colony reproduce asexually and sexually?

-Has many different polyps coming off main stalk (feeding polyp for eating and a reproductive polyp for generating new medusas) -Reproductive polyps form buds that swim away as medusae There is a tough outer layer of chitin like an insect exoskeleton -The obelia goes through both the polyp and medusa stage -The hanging structure underneath the medusa is a gonad that leads to egg and sperm -Sperm fertilizes and they undergo sexual reproduction to create the swimming larvae that develops into a polyp that matures and forms a colony -The colony is capable of asexual reproduction too through budding where medusae reproduce sexually and disperse Obelia to new places -Even though the hydra is likely attached to something, its tentacles are moving as a medusa and larva -The mouth or gastrovascular gravity is hanging at the bottom -The gonad is the cross in the middle The part pointing down is the mouth; the four little radii are gonads

Tunicate larva is clue to its position in phylogeny What two structures are there but in this stage, what does not feed? What is missing? What does it have?

-Has notochord and dorsal tubular nerve cord in tail but does not feed at this stage -Missing pharyngeal gill slits in this stage It has a nerve cord that runs down its back but is missing its gill stage

The cephalopod anatomy What do high levels of activity mean there has to be? What kind of circulatory system is there in squids/octopuses? What do the rudimentary organs do? What do the mantle cavity contractions mean and hold? What is the nervous system like?

-High levels of activity incur a great demand for oxygen -The circulatory system is closed and highly specialized to pump blood through the gills -Octopuses and squid to a lot of movement so they must have a circulatory system (different from the organisms that just use their gastrovascular cavity to circulate) -They have hearts or rudimentary organs to pump blood throughout the body • At rest, a cephalopod rhythmically relaxes and contracts the mantle cavity to facilitate gas exchange in the gills and to expel waste that is discharged into the mantle cavity • The nervous system is highly developed, and cephalopods are capable of learning. They also have excellent vision with eyes that are in some ways similar to mammalian eye -They have digestive glands and a stomach, brain, and tiny brains in their feet and eyes and fins -Their mantle is on the outside and secretes an internal hard shell so they are not as soft as they look

Tissue Layers What are the 3 distinct layers needed for embryonic development? What do they each form?

-Humans and many other animals have 3 distinct tissue layers and this is needed to develop but the process evolves ▪ Embryonic development in deuterostomes leads to the formation of three distinct tissue layers: Endoderm, Ectoderm and Mesoderm -Endoderm: forms inner tissues, gut tissues mostly but also lung cells, thyroid cells, and digestive cells -Mesoderm: smooth muscles (that line your gut), cardiac muscle (heart), skeletal muscle (arms), tubule cells, and in red blood cells (blood), and makes up your middle layer -Ectoderm: outer layer that develops skin cells (skin) and neural tissue (neurons/nerves) and pigment cells

Three Classes of Cnidaria What are the 3 classes and what types of species are found in each?

-Hydrozoa - Hydra, Obelia, Portuguese-Man-O-War (special class of jellyfish) -Scyphozoa - Jellyfish (most common class) -Anthozoa - Corals and sea anemones The scyphozoa are most of the other jellyfish

Setae of Earthworm What is on the outside of the worm? What does it help to do?

-If you run your fingers along the sides of a living worm, you can feel the rasp of the setae (singular seta) or bristles -Earthworms extend the setae to anchor a part of the body in the soil. They retract setae so the body can slide through the soil -Each earthworm has tiny little hairs called setae that help them crawl around surfaces

Deuterostomes Deuterostome development (echinoderms, chordates) What do deuterostomes undergo in cleavage and what is their alignment? Where is coelom found and how does it form? Mesoderm? Archenteron? What is found in the middle of blastospore (in protostomes too)? What does the blastospore opening become?

-In cleavage = Deuterostomes undergo eight cell stage -Radial and indeterminate growth is capable of becoming anything and is parallel or perpendicular to the pole -The coelom is found on top of mesoderm, the archenteron is in the center -The coelom forms from the small folds within the endodermal cells -The digestive tube is found in the middle of the blastopore in protostomes too -Deuterostomes arise from the top of the blastopore and the opening becomes the anus

Animal Embryonic Development Starfish and Sea Urchins (Echinoderms - Deuterostomes) What step happens in order for the zygote to be made? What process does the zygote undergo to create the 8 cell stage? With this same process, what is created after? What is its inner cavity? What is gastrulation? Why should we only have it once? How is the mesoderm created? What is created in gastrulation?

-Their eggs don't have yolks, they are see-through and can be watched for development in a dish. -Early embryonic development starts w/ fertilization (sperm fertilizes an egg) and we get the process of karyogamy which can be seen in plants where the genetic information combines at fertilization -That immediately forms a zygote where it undergoes cleavage and leads to cells multiplying through mitosis and then it cleaves into the 8 cell stage by going from 2 to 4 to 8 and eventually the cells multiply so many times, a blastula is formed -The blastula is just a hollow ball of cells that surround an inner cavity known as the blastocoel -The cell division is perpendicular in the sense that it goes from one single cell to having two full layers on top of each other -Gastrulation is the process of tissue moving inside the ball and is absolutely essential for the creation of multiple cell layers -Allows your body to have tissues, involves a change in cellular shape and a movement and the only time where you want cells to change shape and move throughout your body at will. All the genes responsible for this process gets turned off when embryonic development is done so the cells don't roam around -But in cancers that metastasize, they reactivate these genes in the tumor cells and roam around to find new places in the body -Cells from the endoderm will leave and move into the blastocoel to create the mesoderm -Embryonic development is a process that you only want to happen once in development and thats in an embryo 1. Zygote - (undergoes Cleavage) 2. Eight-cell stage (undergoes Cleavage) 3. Blastula (hollow ball) Blastocoel (Cross section of blastula) -> 4. Gastrulation -> Gastrula (containing endoderm, ectoderm, blastocoel, blastopore)

Class Hydrozoa - Obelia What does obelia live as? What do cnidoblasts do in obelia? What is obelia and what does it have both of? What does it branch into? What do the polyps with tentacles do? What does the ectoderm do?

-There are polyps coming off and obelia lives as a colony -The cnidoblasts are there to sting prey and make them less moving so they can be killed ▪ Obelia is a colonial marine hydrozoan with both polyp and medusa life stages (both are diploid). ▪ The Obelia polyp grows and branches into a colony of interconnected bodies and gastrovascular systems ▪ Polyps with tentacles catch and ingest food ▪ The ectoderm secretes a tough covering of chitin ▪ A snip of many polyps fits under a coverslip.

Phylum Porifera Sponges What are the 5 characteristics of sponges appearance-wise? How do they feed and through what?

-They all structured in different ways and are one of the oldest marine animals -Don't group together like a tissue -Sponges do not have tissues • Different types of cells w/ distinct functions, but no tissues (humans have so many) or layers • Feed by filtering water through their pores and eating what comes there

Class Cephalopoda What is the radula? What species make up the cephalopods? What are they and what do they have to capture prey? Like in gastropods, what is the head and food considered? What is the mantle and when is it used? How does manipulating the siphon help?

-They also have a radula like gastropoda the rasping tongue moves prey to their beaklike jaws of the mouth that bite and crush it. It can be used to scrape algae off rocks or make holes in the shells of other mollusks -They have beak like mouths to crush their food specifically and their head and foot are one giant movable organ -Cephalopods, which include squid, octopus, chambered nautilus, and cuttlefish, are marine animals -They are predators that use tentacles with suction discs to capture their prey. •Cephalo - head •Pod - foot -Their head or foot is one giant nautilus -The mantle forms a cavity with a funnel-shaped siphon -When the mantle relaxes, the cavity fills with water; contraction of muscle in the mantle squirts out a jet of water that moves it away and it doesn't even use its tentacles -By manipulating the direction of the siphon, the cephalopod can orient its swimming -A threatened octopus adds dark ink to the outflow and swims away behind a concealing cloud -By moving the mantle, they can contract and squirt water or ink to propel itself away. It doesn't need to use its tentacles to swim away

Snail Anatomy What do they have that functions as a lung? How is it different for land gastropods? What structure helps them move around? What does the radula do? What is the shell used as? Wat 4 structures are found within the shell? What is the slime gland?

-They have a pneumostome that lets air into the shell so the shell functions as a lung -In land gastropods, the mantle cavity functions as a lung by bringing in air through the pneumostome -They have a long muscular foot which is how they move around -The radula is the tongue of the snail has little teeth on it that allows them to eat -They have eyes and tentacles -The shell (deposited by the mantle) of a snail coils either to the animals left or to its right and provides a home into which the soft animal can withdraw -The digestive system, excretory organ, mantle cavity and gills are housed within the shell -A slime gland in the front of the foot and under their mouth secretes mucus through which the snail glides by muscle contractions of the foot

Earthworm Life Cycle What do they start out as and how long do they incubate? What phase comes next and for how long? After the juvenile is grown a little, what is the second phase and for how long? Then when they reproduce again, how long does it take to form a cocoon?

-They start as a small cocoon and incubate for about 15 days -Then a juvenile crawls out and undergoes a growth phase I for 15 days and becomes a non-clitellate -The young worm then has a growth phase II for 17 days to turn into a clitellate -The mature clitellate worm reproduces with another and a cocoon forms in 10 days

How the water vascular system works Where are tube feet found? What happens to them when water comes in? What happens when ampullae contract? What does each foot have?

-Tube feet can be seen on the ventral side (with stomach) in the ambulacral groove -The water comes in and the tube feet move that can stick to shells and molluscs they want to eat and helps push the entire body against the water -When ampullae contract, tube feet extend -Each foot has an adhesive disc.

Classes of Phylum Platyhelminthes What are the 3 classes and what are they made up of?

-Turbellaria: most are free living - can live in water or soil e.g., Planaria (Genus Dugesia) -Trematoda: parasitic flukes, e.g.,Opisthorch is the liver fluke -Cestoda: parasitic tapeworms ,e.g.,Taenia

Starfish Development Early Gastrula to Late Gastrula What happens after the late blastula and why? What do the tissues do and what is formed? Where are they located? As gastrulation keeps occurring, what is made after? In starfish? What about in humans?

1. Ovum (egg) -> 2. Fertilized Egg -> (divides into) 3. Two-cell Stage --> (divide perpendicularly) 4. Four-cell stage -> 5. Eight-cell stage -> 6. Morula -> 7. Early Blastula -> 8. Middle Blastula -> 8. Late Blastula -> 9. Early Gastrula -> 10. Early Gastrula w/ Blastopore -> 11. Gastrula -> 12. Late Gastrula -The late gastrula has more tissue: there is a movement of cells that transform into larva covered in cilia -During the process of gastrulation some tissues push in (invaginate) into the ball of the blastocyst. -The gastrovascular cavity develops the endoderm and ectoderm and once the cells have gone on the inside, they stay. (Ectoderm - outside, Mesoderm-inside, Endoderm-innermost) -> Larva -As gastrulation continues to occur, we have it transforming into a larva and in the case of starfish, the larva is covered in cilia -This life plan keeps changing -Humans do not undergo metamorphosis and they do not change, so they are different from starfish (with swimming larvae) and insects (caterpillar to butterfly) that develop in this way Starfish and sea urchins are deuterostomes

Starfish Development Eight-cell stage to Late Blastula What are the 9 steps? What is the next step after the 4 cells stage and how does it come? What is the morula considered as? What gets smaller and smaller from early blastula to late blastula?

1. Ovum (egg) -> 2. Fertilized Egg -> (divides into) 3. Two-cell Stage --> (divide perpendicularly) 4. Four-cell stage -> 5. Eight-cell stage -> 6. Morula -> 7. Early Blastula -> 8. Middle Blastula -> 9. Late Blastula -The eight-cell stage continues to divide through 2 layers of 4 cells and moves into a morula (considered a bag of grapes phenotype) and creates a early blastula (with blastocoel in middle) and the cells get smaller and smaller with the middle blastula and late blastula (blastocyst/blastocoel is open center)

Notochord What is the neural plate? What happens to make a tube eventually? Why don't we use our notochord? What does the formation of a notochord in an embryo introduce? What is the notochord function replaced by and what does it become part of in humans? Without the notochord, what cannot be formed?

A rod of tough, flexible material that runs the length of a creature's body just below the neural groove, providing the majority of its support -If we were to slice a piece of the embryo, we have a section called the neural plate that creates the neutral fold -Tissue movement, crawling, changing shape and bending the neural groove structures to make a tube eventually -Humans don't use their notochord because we have vertebrate that are much more rigid and protect the nerve cord but we still need it because there wouldn't be a formation of neural tube and vertebrate -Formation of the notochord in an embryo induces the overlying ectoderm to roll up and make the dorsal tubular nerve cord, the CNS -The notochord function is replaced by vertebrae -It becomes part of the intervertebral discs No notochord, no CNS formation!