Bio Exam Two Study Prep

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DNA Replication ensures

all somatic cells carry the same genetic information

Gene Expression

THE PROCESS BY WHICH GENETIC INFO FLOWS FROM GENES TO PROTEIN

Metaphase 1

Tetrads are aligned along the cell equator

Metaphase 2

The (still duplicated) chromosomes are aligned midway between poles Haploid

Autosome

The same in male and females First 22 chromosomes

Phases of Mitosis

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Only 3% code for

Protein (Others have no effect)

Natural Selection

Variation Heritability Unequal Production

DNA - Basis of life unity

Variations in crossing over and reproducation is the foundation of life's diversity

DNA Technology Applications

- Forensics - Medical and industrial products - GMO's for agriculture - Human family and evolutionary relationships - Many areas of biological research

Viruses are

- Not considered alive - Not cellular - Cannot reproduce on their own (Hosts cells)

Cancer Treatments

- Surgery to remove tumor - Radiation therapy (high-energy radiation) - Chemotherapy (drugs to disrupt growth)

Diploid

2 sets of chromosomes

Trisomy 21

21st chromosome with three chromosomes that results in Down syndrome

Human Chromosomes

46 chromosomes, 23 pairs, 22 autosomes, 1 sex chromosome

Genotype Ratio

9:3:3:1

Karyotype

A picture of a diploid set of chromosome

Anaphase 2

All sister chromatids sperate The (now unduplicated) chromosomes head to poles Haploid

Cytokinesis in animal cells

Cleavage Furrow

Virus

An infectious particle consisting of - Nucleic Acid - Protein coat (Cansid) - A membrane envelope - Rely on hosts cells

Haploid

An organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes. (Half of a diploid) Starts after telophase 1

Centromere

Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached

Causes of Cancer

Caused by lost control of the cell cycle at checkpoints

Cytokinesis in plant cells

Cell Plate

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)

Austrian Monk - Scientists Used peas and flowers to observe genetic inheritance

Mutations

Can form in any cell Those in gametes can be passed to offspring May have a harmful or lethal outcome Some give rise to variation in trait (Basis for evolution)

Cancer and Tumors

Cancer cells form tumors - Abnormally growing masses of body cells

Malignant Tumors - Cancer

Cells Spread

Benign Tumors

Cells do not spread

Prophase 1

Chromosomes Condense Homologous chromosomes come together by synapsis Crossing over occurs

Telophase 2

Chromosomes arrive at poles Nuclear envelopes form Haploid

Telophase

Chromosomes arrive at spindle poles and decondense, nuclei form, and spindle disappears

Prophase

Chromosomes become visable, nuclear envelop dissolves, spindle forms

Prophase 2

Chromosomes condense The nuclear envelope breaks up haploid

Metaphase

Chromosomes line up between spindle poles

AUG

Codes for methionine signals for the start of transcription

Transgenic Organism

Contain at least one gene from another species

Transgenic organisms

Contain at least one gene from another species

Nonsense Mutation

Creates a stop codon: AGA to UGA

Interphase

DNA replication occurs

DNA Replication

DNA unzips into two parts and splits with the cell. In it's new home each side of the DNA strand attack to matching nucleotides to create 2 exact copies. It is important in puberty and other times of growth as it is the reproducing of your cells.

Gametes

Derive from germ cells: immature reproductive cells Haploid (1n)

Sex Chromosome

Differ between females and males Females - XX Males - XY

Alleles

Different forms of the same gene

Telophase 1

Duplicated chromosomes reach the poles Nuclear envelopes reform Each nucleus is now haploid

DNA polymerase

Enzyme involved in DNA replication that joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule

Mitosis and zygotes

Every cell in your body was produced through successive rounds of mitosis starting from the zygote

A-T

G-C

Cell devision functions in

Growth, healing/repair, development, sexual reproduction (gametes), asexual reproduction (single-celled organisms)

Anaphase 1

Homologous pairs separate and move towards opposite poles of the cell

DNA

James Watson and Francis Crick First discovered in 1869 Not understood until 1950s Rosalind Francolin made first x-ray image of DNA

Linked genes

Located near one another on the same chromosome

Reproductive Cycles

Lytic Cycle Lysogenic Cycle

Test Cross

Mating between an individual of unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive (pp) individual

Dihybrid Cross

Mating of parental varieties that differ in two characteristics (RrYy and RrYy)

DNA Technology

Modern techniques to study and manipulate genetic material

Codominence

More genotype than phenotype

Polygenic Inheritance

Multiple genes that affect one trait

Silent mutations

No effect: Changing from GAG to GAA

Pleiotropy

One gene that affects multiple traits

genetically modified organism (GMO)

Organisms contain one or more genes introduced by artificial means

GMO

Organisms containing one or more genes introduced by artificial means

Monohybrid cross

Original: Pp and Pp Produces: PP, Pp, Pp, and pp

Gel Electrophoresis

Procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel

Inique Individuals

Produced by sexual reproduction

Meiosis

Produces 4 daughter cells 1 chromosome each

Missense mutation

Produces different amino acid: GGC to AGC Can be beneficial, harmful or neutral

Asexual Reproduction

Produces offspring that are identical to the "parent"

Sexual Reproduction

Produces offspring with two sets of genes from two parents Requires fertilization of an egg by sperm

Mutagenesis

Product of mutations Mutations can be used by: Error during DNA replication Mutagens (Highly radioactive or chemicals)

Most plant and animal viruses have ___ rather than DNA

RNA

Incomplete dominence

RR - red rr - White Rr - Pink

61 codons

Respond to amino acids

Frameshifts

Result from deletion or insertions Alters the reading frame Leads to change in amino acid Produces a nonfunctional polypeptide

Meiosis Errors

Result in genetic abnormalities

A pedigree

Shows the inheritance of a trait in a family through multiple generations Demonstrates dominant or recessive inheritance

Mutations in a hemoglobin amino acid cause

Sickle cell disease

Anaphase

Sister Chromatids separate and move towards opposite spindle poles

Viroids

Small, circular RNA molecules that affect plants

Biotechnology

The manipulation of organisms to make useful products

DNA is _________________ into RNA.

Transcribed

RNA is ________________ into a protein (polypeptide).

Translated

3 "stop" codons

UAA, UAG, UGA

A codon for one amino acid does not code for any other amino acid

Unambiguous

Lytic Cycle

a viral reproductive cycle in which copies of a virus are made within a host cell, which then bursts open, releasing new viruses

Lysogenic Cycle

a viral reproductive cycle in which the viral DNA is added to the host cell's DNA and is copied along with the host cell's DNA

Mutations can cause

cancer

Non disjunction

chromosomes fail to separate at anaphase producing gametes with abnormal numbers of chromosomes

Three nucleotides

codon

Recombinant DNA

formed by joining nucleotide sequences from two different sources The gene to be cloned and a vector

Zoonotic diseases

greater than 60 percent human diseases start in animals

Human Gametes

have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes

Hold two strands of DNA together

hydrogen bonds

Human gene therapy

intended to treat disease by introducing genes into an afflicted person

Genetic Engineering

manipulation of genes for practical purposes

Gene Regulation

mechanisms that turn on certain genes while other genes remain turned off Allows for specialization of cells within the body

The genetic code is

nearly universal

Gene cloning

production of multiple identical copies of a gene

More than one codon for some amino acids

redundant

Double Helix

two strands of nucleotides wound about each other; structure of DNA

Emerging viruses

viruses new to medical scientists


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