Bio488 Final Exam

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Consider the above graph. Each dot represents the frequency of miniature excitatory post synaptic currents recorded from an individual neuron from an undisclosed brain region. The horizontal line is the mean. The P value is from a t-test and is significant. This data is an example of a: Select one: a. sex difference b. sex similarity c. sex dimorphism

Stimulation of Rod 1 by light will have what effect on the RGC, if this is an on-center pathway? Select one: a. It will have no effect. b. It is more likely to cause a decrease in the number of actions potentials (APs) generated by the RGC. c. It is more likely to cause an increase in the number of action potentials (APs) generated by the RGC.

Stimulation of Rod 1 by light will have what effect on the bipolar cell, if this is part of an on center pathway? Select one: a. It will have no effect on the bipolar cell. b.It will hyperpolarize the bipolar cell. c.It will depolarize the bipolar cell.

Which of the following are advantages offered by L-DOPA treatment?(multiple answers allowed) Select one or more: a. None of these are relevant advantages. b. Relatively inexpensive compared to other treatments c. L-DOPA exposure can restore the ability to initiate and execute movements. d. Oral route of delivery offers increased ease of use compared to other treatments e. L-DOPA exposure can halt the death of dopamine producing neurons.

B, C, D

Which of the following are true of cone photoreceptors? a. They generate action potentials. b. They operate only in high levels of light. c. They generate information that is relayed to bipolar cells, retinal ganglion cells, and then to the cortex via the thalamus d. They depolarize in response to darkness. e. None of these answers are correct.

B, C, D

This image represents a modern neuroanatomical technique. What are correct strengths and weaknesses of this technique? Select one or more: a. None of these answers are valid strengths or weaknesses. b. This technique is only an indirect measure of neural function via changes in blood flow. c. This technique is very expensive. d. This technique is non-invasive. e. This technique can investigate a living brain.

B, C, D, E

Which of the following are possible causes of ageusia and/or anosmia? (multiple answers possible) Select one or more: a. None of these answers. b. COVID-19 c. Lesions of the thalamus d. Traumatic Brain Injury e. Stroke

B, C, D, E

A transection has been made of the optic chiasm (black line on the associated diagram). What happens to visual sensation? (Circle one or more) a. Lateral vision is lost in both visual fields. b. Lateral vision is lost in only one visual field. c. Medial vision is lost in both visual fields. d. Medial vision is lost in only one visual field. e. Medial and lateral vision is lost in both visual fields.

B, D

For each description provided below (a-d), indicate which (if any) of the following aspects of sensory receptors (A-D) it describes accurately. A - Photoreceptors B - Hair cells C - Somatosensory receptors D - none of the above Includes neurons with cell bodies in the intralaminar nuclei

C, D

Which of the following are distinct motor symptoms of Parkinson's Disease? (multiple answers possible) Select one or more: a. None of these are distinct symptoms b. L-DOPA induced dyskinesia c. Resting tremor d. Postural instability e. Akinesia f. Difficulty initiating movement g. Bradykinesia h. Rigidity of the limbs

C, D, E, F, G, H

For the lesion above, damage in which area would result in loss of arm movement? (choose one) A. CERVICAL ENLARGEMENT B. LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT

The diagram above represents neurons found within the retina. The circuit is "Off Center/On Surround" If Rod 2 is placed in the light, what effect would it have on bipolar cell action potential frequency? Select one: a. Neither, bipolar cells do not have action potentials. b. Decrease c. Increase

The diagram above represents neurons found within the retina. The circuit is "Off Center/On Surround" If rod 2 is placed in the light, what effect would it have on voltage gated Calcium channels on the retinal ganglion cell? Select one: a. More channels will open. b. More channels will close.

The diagram above represents neurons found within the retina. The circuit is "Off Center/On Surround" What effect would placing Rod 2 in the light have on Rod 1 glutamate release? Select one: a. Rod 1 would release more glutamate. b. Rod 1 would release less glutamate.

Synaptic integration: Select one or more: a.can involve both excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs. b.can involve both spatial and temporal summation. c.depends in part on the length constant of the dendrites involved. d.involves the linear summation of postsynaptic potentials.

A, B, C

16. Which of the following are true statements about long term potentiation (LTP)? a. LTP is one mechanism underlying learning and memory. b. One place that LTP has been studied are synapse in the hippocampus. c. LTP can involve an increase in AMPA receptor numbers in the postsynaptic membrane. d. LTP can be mediated by calcium entry into the postsynaptic neuron. e. none of the above

A, B, C, D

A transection has been made of the optic chiasm (black line on the associated diagram). What happens to visual sensation? Select one: a. Medial vision is lost in both visual fields. b. Lateral (peripheral) vision is lost in both visual fields. c. Medial vision is lost in only one visual field. d. Medial and lateral vision is lost in both visual fields. e. Lateral vision is lost in only one visual field.

In the image above, what structure is the red circle positioned on top of? Select one: a. Ventral root b. Dorsal root ganglion c. Dorsal column d. Dorsal root e. Spinal nerve

Indicate the sensory system(s) to which the following statement applies best. Includes a direct projection to cortex that is not through the thalamus. Choose one or more answers. Select one or more: a. Gustatory system b. Olfactory system c. Somatosensory system d. Visual system e. Auditory system

One cell in this circuit is not labeled -- which type of cell is this? Select one: a.amacrine cell b.horizontal cell c.cone cell

Rod 2 releases a neurotransmitter onto the unlabeled cell. Given that this is an on-center pathway, what type of receptor is present at the synapse between rod 2 and the unlabeled cell? Select one: a.metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR6), which hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane b.ionotropic glutamate receptors like AMPA, which depolarize the postsynaptic membrane c. GABA receptors

Stimulation of Rod 1 by light will have what effect on the release of glutamate by Rod 1? Select one: a.It will increase the release of glutamate by Rod 1. b.It will decrease the release of glutamate by Rod 1. c. It will have no effect on the release of glutamate by Rod 1.

Stimulation of Rod 1 by light will have what effect on the release of glutamate by Rod 1? Select one: a. It will increase the release of glutamate by Rod 1. b. It will decrease the release of glutamate by Rod 1. c. It will have no effect on the release of glutamate by Rod 1

This image represents a modern neuroanatomical technique. What is the name of this technique? a. None of these answers are correct. b. fMRI c. Clarity d. Electron microscopy.

Understanding nervous system function requires an understanding of the connections among different regions of the brain as well as their different physiology and functions. Demonstrate your understanding of motor system function by answering the following question: Which of the following contains upper motor neurons? Select one: a. Uva b. Motor cortex c. Cerebellum d. Basal ganglia e. None of these answers are correct

What symptoms would occur with this lesion of the spinal cord? A. LOSS OF VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS B. LOSS OF SOMATOSENSATION

When light acts on Rod 2, what effect would you expect to see on the RGC, if this is an on-center pathway? Select one: a. It should have no effect. b. It should have the opposite effect as light acting on Rod 1 does. c. It should have the same effect as light acting on Rod 1 does.

Indicate the sensory system(s) to which the following statement applies best. Sensory receptor neurons contain cilia (sometimes colloquially described as "hair"). Choose one or more answers. Select one or more: a. Visual system b. Auditory system c. Olfactory system d. Somatosensory system e. Gustatory system

B, C

Which of the following are not true of free nerve endings in the somatosensory system? a. Some are involved in the detection of painful stimuli, nociception. b. They typically have a specialized structure such as a corpuscle. c. They are involved in the detection of vibrational stimuli. d. None of these answers

B, C

Understanding nervous system function requires an understanding of the connections among different regions of the brain as well as their different physiology and functions. Demonstrate your understanding of motor system function by answering the following questions Which of the following works via disinhibition? BASAL GANGLIA / CEREBELLUM / MOTOR CORTEX

Basal Ganglia

Which of the following are true statements about neurotransmitter receptors? a. Metabotropic neurotransmitter receptors contain a channel to allow ion passage. b. A given neurotransmitter can have both metabotropic and ionotropic receptors. c. Metabotropic and ionotropic receptors can be present at the same synapse. d. Ionotropic receptors act more slowly than metabotropic receptors. e. none of the above

B, C

The axons originating from the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway associated somatosensory receptors in the left hand are re-directed to innervate Brodman's Area 17 in the left hemisphere. The left hand is then touched. What would be the most likely perception? a. None of these answers are correct. b. A perception of a touch in the left hand. c. A visual perception or disruption in the left visual field. d. A visual perception or disruption in the right visual field. e. All of these answers are correct.

Understanding nervous system function requires an understanding of the connections among different regions of the brain as well as their different physiology and functions. Demonstrate your understanding of motor system function by answering the following question: Which of the following is more involved in executing the specific movement? Select one: a. None of these answers are correct b. Basal ganglia c. Retrosplenial cortex d. Motor Cortex e. Cerebellum

Which form of synaptic plasticity is known to involve a change in action potential shape at the terminal to something like that shown in 'C' ? a. long term potentiation (LTP) b. synaptic depression c. long term depression (LTD) d. presynaptic facilitation e. None of these answers are correct.

T/F The Nernst equation assumes selective permeability to one type of ion.

True

In layer IV of an ocular dominance column, which of the following is true? a. A neuron in layer IV will respond to input from only one eye. b. A neuron in layer IV will respond equally to input from either eye.

Which of the diffuse modulatory systems are involved in the sleep/wake state? Select one or more: a. serotonin b. dopamine c. acetylcholine d. norepinephrine

a, c, d

Above are schematics of spinal cord segments at three different levels of the spinal cord. Which section contains the least motor neurons? Select one: a. A b. C c. B

a. A

Above is a schematic of one spinal cord segment. Three neurons (labled A-C) are shown in their appropriate locations. Neuron A forms excitatory synapses onto neuron B, and neuron B forms inhibitory synapses onto neuron C. Which cell is an interneuron? Select one: a. B b. C c. A

a. B

You are studying myelin in the peripheral nervous system and make the micrograph shown to the right. a. Draw a line to a patch of myelin and label it. (1 point) BE PRECISE. b. What type of glia is responsible for the myelination of these axons? Schwann Cell / Astrocyte / Oligodendrocyte c. In diseases such as Multiple Sclerosis, demyelination occurs. When myelin degrades, how does this impact the speed of action potential propagation? Decreases / Increases

b. schwann cell c. decreases

Which molecule in the dopaminergic metabolic pathway cannot be used as a treatment for Parkinson's Disease because the rate limiting step in the dopamine pathway is tyrosine hydroxylase?

Tyrosine

T/F The cerebellum sends information to the cortex by way of the ventrolateral (VL) nucleus of the thalamus. Select one:

True

T/F The dorsal stream of visual processing includes parietal cortex and is involved in the detection of motion.

True

T/F The rate-limiting step in the synthesis of dopamine is the activity of the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase (TH).

True

T/F The serotonergic, cholinergic, and noradrenergic diffuse modulatory systems all have projections to thalamocortical neurons.

True

T/F The specialized receptor cells of the vestibular system are called hair cells.

True

T/F The spinothalamic pathway, which mediates nociception, crosses over at the level of the spinal cord.

True

T/F The striatum receives inputs from almost all regions of cerebral cortex.

True

T/F Thoracic spinal segments are rostral to lumbar spinal segments.

True

T/F Two-point discrimination is a measure of somatosensory acuity.

True

T/F Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) is involved in the synthesis of dopamine.

True

Threshold is reached whenever a neuron is depolarized enough to open voltage-gated sodium channels.

True

T/F Upper motor neurons are the group of motor neurons that directly innervate a single muscle.

False

The rate limiting step in acetylcholine synthesis is the rate of degradation AChE.

False

Name three distinct motor symptoms of PD.

1. Rigidity of the limbs 2. Resting tremor 3. Postural instability 4. Akinesia 5. Bradykinesia 6. Difficulty initiating movement

Korsakoff syndrome primarily results from damage to which area? Select one: a. Degeneration of anterior (lower body) spinocerebellum b. Subthalamic nucleus c. Death of SNpc neurons d. Striatum to external globus pallidus projection e. Premotor Area in the Cortex

On the above figure, is the red line correctly positioned on the midline? Select one: a. Yes b. No

Which of the following statements accurately describe somatosensory receptors? (multiple answers allowed) Select one or more: a. Cell bodies are located in the dorsal root ganglion b. Contains specialized structures for sensory transduction c. Sends axon projections via the spinal cord d. Generates information that is relayed to cortex via the thalamus

A, B, C, D

For this RGC, which photoreceptor contributes to the direct pathway? Select one: a. Rod 1 b. Rod 2

A. Rod 1

For this RGC, which photoreceptor contributes to the indirect pathway? Select one: a.Rod 1 b.Rod 2

Which region features primary computational neurons that are Purkinje Neurons? Select one: a. Basal ganglia b. Cerebellum c. Robust nucleus of the arcopallium d. Uva e. Lower motorneurons

Neurotransmitter receptors can be localized to: Select one or more: a.the vesicular membrane b.the postsynaptic membrane c.the presynaptic membrane d.the perisynaptic glial membrane

B Always C Sometimes D Yes, often true

"A single cortical map is an example of the neurobiological concept of localization of function." Which of the below statements is a correct definition of "localization of function?" Select one: a. Localization of function is the idea that all areas of the brain are equally active in overall mental functioning. b. Localization of function is the idea that certain functions are mediated by broadly distributed brain regions. c. Localization of function is the idea that specific regions of the brain are involved in certain functions.

Above is a schematic diagram looking down onto the visual system in a horizontal place. The eyes are looking at a screen with images projected onto it. For this question, assume the eyes stay focused on the dot in the center of the screen and that each eye can see all of the screen. As illustrated in the diagram, you flash an image of an 'X' on the left side of the dot and an image of an 'O' on the right side of the dot. Retinal ganglion cell 1 (RGC 1) is located in the temporal (lateral) portion of the left retina. RGC 2 is located in the temporal (lateral) portion of the right retina. RGC 2 will process information about which image? Select one: a. O b. Neither c. X

Above is a schematic of one spinal cord segment. Three neurons (labled A-C) are shown in their appropriate locations. Neuron A forms excitatory synapses onto neuron B, and neuron B forms inhibitory synapses onto neuron C. Is the soma of cell A located in a: Select one: a. dorsal root b. ventral root c. dorsal root ganglion

Which of the following are true of neuroendocrine hormone action? (multiple answers allowed) Select one or more: a. There is no hormone action in the nervous system before puberty. b. The brain cannot make hormones. c. None of these choices are true. d. Estradiol is found only in adult females. e. Organizational hormone action usually makes temporary changes in the nervous system.

Above is a schematic of one spinal cord segment. Three neurons (labled A-C) are shown in their appropriate locations. Neuron A forms excitatory synapses onto neuron B, and neuron B forms inhibitory synapses onto neuron C. Is the axon of cell C located in a: Select one: a. dorsal root b. none of these choices are correct c. dorsal root ganglion d. ventral root

For each description below, indicate the sensory system to which it applies best. You can use an answer more than once, but use only one answer per space.(5 points) A - auditory system B - visual system C - somatosensory system D - olfactory system includes a direct projection to cortex that is not through the thalamus

How does L-DOPA work as a treatment for Parkinson's Disease? Select one: a. L-DOPA is converted into serotonin in the brain by Dopa-decarboxylase. b. L-DOPA is converted into Dopamine in the brain by tyrosine hydroxlase. c. None of these answers are correct. d. L-DOPA is converted into dopamine in the brain by Dopa-decarboxylase.

Depolarize

Which molecule in the dopaminergic metabolic pathway cannot be used as a treatment for Parkinson's Disease because it cannot cross the blood brain barrier?

Dopamine

Damage to the subthalamic nucleus results in one of the disorders listed below. Select the appropriate disorder: Select one: a. Parkinson's Disease b. Aphasia c. Huntington's Disease d. Paralysis e. Ballism

Which brain region, if damaged, would induce a phantom limb experience? Select one: a. primary visual cortex b. dorsal root ganglions c. Broca's Area d. Lateral geniculate nucleus e. primary somatosensory cortex

Which disorder features jerky, inaccurate motor program coordination? Select one: a.Ideomotor Apraxia b.Prosopagnosia c. Korsakoff syndrome d. Blindness e. cerebellar ataxia

Which of the below feature primary output neurons that are Layer 5 Pyramidal Neurons? Select one: a. Cerebellum b. Subthalamic nucleus c. Muscle fibers d. Basal ganglia e. primary motor cortex

T/F Phantom limb experiences do not involve proprioceptive, painful, and/or tactile (touch) experiences.

False

T/F Presynaptic facilitation is the cellular basis for the increased synaptic strength underlying long term potentiation.

False

Which of the below statement accurately uses the somatotopic map to illustrate the neurobiological concept of localization of function? Select one: a. Different regions of the primary somatosensory cortex are involved in processing somatosensory information from different regions of the body. For example, somatosensory info from the feet is processed in medial postcentral sulcus, while somatosensory information from the face is processed in lateral postcentral sulcus. This means that different parts of the somatotopic map are dedicated to specific functions, illustrating the concept of localization of function. b. Different regions of the primary somatosensory cortex are involved in processing somatosensory information from the same regions of the body. For example, somatosensory info from the feet is processed in medial postcentral gyrus, while somatosensory information from the face is also processed in medial postcentral gyrus. This means that different parts of the somatotopic map are dedicated to specific functions, illustrating the concept of localization of function. c. Different regions of the primary somatosensory cortex are involved in processing somatosensory information from different regions of the body. For example, somatosensory info from the feet is processed in medial pretcentral gyrus, while somatosensory information from the face is processed in lateral pretcentral gyrus. This means that different parts of the somatotopic map are dedicated to specific functions, illustrating the concept of localization of function. d. Different regions of the primary somatosensory cortex are involved in processing somatosensory information from different regions of the body. For example, somatosensory info from the nose is processed in medial postcentral gyrus, while somatosensory information from the toes is processed in lateral postcentral gyrus. This means that different parts of the somatotopic map are dedicated to specific functions, illustrating the concept of localization of function. e. Different regions of the primary somatosensory cortex are involved in processing somatosensory information from different regions of the body. For example, somatosensory info from the feet is processed in medial postcentral gyrus, while somatosensory information from the face is processed in lateral postcentral gyrus. This means that different parts of the somatotopic map are dedicated to specific functions, illustrating the concept of localization of function.

Consider a newly discovered creature whose neurons function according to the same principles that squid and human neurons do. The following ionic concentration ratios are known: a. If the cell membrane were selectively permeable to Ion 1 (A+ ) at rest, what would the resting membrane potential be? Show your work for full credit. Put your final answer in the box. Be sure to include the charge and the proper units in your final answer (4 points)

Eion = 61/1 * log 10/1 Eion = 61 mV * 1 Eion = +61 mV

This course often emphasizes structure-function relationships in the nervous system. What would be the expected effect of a lesion to the following structures? Match the structures below to the appropriate pathology (A-L). Each answer is used only once, and use only one answer per space Prosopagnosia, inability to recognize faces

T/F Aromatase is the enzyme that converts estradiol into testosterone.

False

T/F Glomeruli are examples of orderly representation of sensory information found in primary olfactory cortex.

False

What disorder features a condition in which an individual is unable to plan movements related to interaction with objects, because they have lost the perception of the object's purpose?

Ideational Apraxia

While you wait for your lab assistant to return from lunch, you decide to practice using the Nernst equation (look it up in your notes or in the book).Assuming that x = 20, calculate the equilibrium potential for Ion 1 (A+). Indicate clearly what each of the following would equal: z, [ION]outside, and [ION]inside.

Inside: 1 Outside: 20 EA+ = 61*log(20/1) = +79.3 mV It is positive, as expected from the influx of A+ , carrying a positive charge into the cell, that would occur if the cell were selectively permeable to this ion. Be sure to include the charge and the units (mV) in your answer.

What is the name of the primary, most commonly treatment available for Parkinson's Disease motor symptoms?

L-DOPA

Sensory information is represented in an orderly manner in specific nervous system structures. Complete each of the following statements by circling the correct answer c. Spinal cord injuries in the dorsal column may impact sensory information from which system? MECHANOSENSATION / NOCICEPTION / VISUAL

MECHANOSENSATION

Understanding nervous system function requires an understanding of the connections among different regions of the brain as well as their different physiology and functions. Demonstrate your understanding of motor system function by answering the following questions Which of the following has the most direct influence on lower motoneurons? BASAL GANGLIA / MOTOR CORTEX / CEREBELLUM

Motor Cortex

Understanding nervous system function requires an understanding of the connections among different regions of the brain as well as their different physiology and functions. Demonstrate your understanding of motor system function by answering the following questions Which of the following is more involved in executing the specific movement? BASAL GANGLIA / MOTOR CORTEX / CEREBELLUM

Motor Cortex

Describe the properties and mechanisms of the NMDA receptor and the AMPA receptor.

NMDA receptors are gated both by voltage (depolarization) (1 POINT), glycine (1 POINT), and by the neurotransmitter Glutamate (1 POINT). Glutamate and glycine must bind to the receptor, and the postsynaptic membrane must be depolarized in order for the NMDA channel to open. The depolarization causes a magnesium ion to leave the pore. NMDA allows the flow of calcium, sodium, and potassium ions (1 POINT) AMPA receptors are gated by the neurotransmitter glutamate (1 POINT). AMPA receptors allow the flow of sodium and potassium ions (1 POINT).

Would L-DOPA treatment work if no dopaminergic neurons are left alive in the Substantia Nigra pars compacta?

NO, b/c Neurons with functioning dopamine synthesis pathways are necessary for L-DOPA to be converted to dopamine, and delivered to the striatum.

You depolarize a neuron to +30 mV and hold the membrane at the potential. Threshold potential for this neuron is -50 mV. What you record is shown here, with current (Y-axis) plotted against time (Xaxis). At letter C, which ion would you predict to have a larger conductance? (1 point) (Circle one) i. sodium ii. potassium

Potassium

T/F "White matter" has more axons and "gray matter" has more neuronal cell bodies.

True

T/F A layered cortex is present in mammals but not birds.

True

T/F A motor unit is defined as a single alpha motor neuron and all the extrafusal muscle fibers it innervates.

True

T/F Caffeine is an adenosine receptor antagonist.

True

Consider a newly discovered creature whose neurons function according to the same principles that squid and human neurons do. The following ionic concentration ratios are known: c. Ion 2 (B+), has a higher concentration inside the neuron compared to the extracellular fluid. To determine which ion contributes to the resting membrane potential, you experimentally increase the concentration gradient of B+ by doubling its concentration in the extracellular fluid. 1. To complete this experiment, what type of patch clamp should you use? (1 point) (circle one) i. voltage clamp ii. current clamp iii. membrane potential 2. To complete this experiment, what should you measure? (1 point) (circle one) i. voltage clamp ii. current clamp iii. membrane potential

1. Current clamp 2. membrane potential

For each description provided below (a-d), indicate which (if any) of the following aspects of sensory receptors (A-D) it describes accurately. A - Photoreceptors B - Hair cells C - Somatosensory receptors D - none of the above Generates information that is relayed via the thalamus

A, B, C

Which of the following are true statements about the coding of sensory information? a. The strength of a stimulus can be coded by the number of evoked action potentials. b. The environmental stimulus detected by the sensory receptor must be translated into a language that the central nervous system can process. c. Detection of environmental chemicals is enabled by the olfactory system. d. Whether a stimulus is perceived as a touch, smell, or vision depends in part on which region of primary sensory cortex receivesthe neural signal. e. none of the above

A, B, C, D

Which of the following are true of synaptic depression at the NMJ in mouse soleus muscle? a. It involves a decrease in the amount of neurotransmitter released in response to an action potential in the neuron. b. It can be blocked using a nicotinic receptor antagonist. c. It can be blocked using a muscarinic receptor antagonist. d. It can be blocked by preventing calcium increases in perisynaptic Schwann cells. e. none of the above

A, C, D

Below are three neurons from a neural circuit (each neuron representing a population of neurons). When Neuron A releases neurotransmitter onto Neuron B, it causes sodium channels to open in the postsynaptic membrane. The synapse from neuron B to neuron C is excitatory. Under starting conditions, Neuron B is firing 1 action potential/10 seconds. You simultaneously depolarize Neuron A and Neuron B, and observe that the dendritic spines on Neuron B grow larger, as in the following figure. A. Which of the following is more likely to have occurred? LTP / LTD / PRESYNAPTIC DEPRESSION B. Would you be more like to hypothesize: INCREASED AMPA CHANNEL EXPRESSION / DECREASED AMPA CHANNEL EXPRESSION

A. LTP B. INCREASED AMPA CHANNEL EXPRESSION

Which of the following are true of free nerve endingsin the somatosensory system? a. Some are mechanoreceptors. b. Some are photoreceptors. c. They typically have a specialized structure such as a corpuscle. d. Some are involved in the detection of painful stimuli, nociception. e. none of the above

DECREASE

Below are three neurons from a neural circuit (each neuron representing a population of neurons). When Neuron A releases neurotransmitter onto Neuron B, it causes sodium channels to open in the postsynaptic membrane. The synapse from neuron B to neuron C is excitatory. Under starting conditions, Neuron B is firing 1 action potential/10 seconds. a. If you inject depolarizing current into Neuron A, what effect on Neuron C would you expect to see (compared to starting conditions)? Depolarization / Hyperpolarization

DEPOLARIZATION

Calcium ions are positively charged. If you flip a switch that opens calcium channels and calcium ions flow from outside the cell to inside the cell, what would happen to the balance of charges across the cell membrane? Select one: a.The cell would remain neutral. b.The cell would become negatively charged inside relative to outside the cell membrane. c.The cell would become positively charged inside relative to outside the cell membrane.

If you flipped a switch and caused chloride channels (and only chloride channels) in the cell membrane to open, what would happen? State the type and direction of ion movement you would expect.

Chloride (Cl) ions would move through the open Cl ion channels down their concentration gradient, so they would move from outside to inside the cell.

If you flipped a switch and caused sodium channels (and only sodium channels) in the cell membrane to open, which of the following would you expect to happen? a.Chloride ions would flow through the channels from outside to inside the cell, moving down their concentration gradient. b.Chloride ions would flow through the channels from inside to outside the cell, moving up their concentration gradient. c.Sodium ions would flow through the channels from inside to outside the cell, moving up their concentration gradient. d.Sodium ions would flow through the channels from outside to inside the cell, moving down their concentration gradient.

Depolarize

Several mechanisms mediate the equilibrium potential. Which of the following are true statements about these mechanisms? a. The equilibrium potential for a particular ion is determined only by the electrical driving forces on that ion. b. For a neuron that is permeable to two ions, the equilibrium potential for the ion with the greatest permeability will be the same as the resting membrane potential. c. The equilibrium potential for pairs of ions can be calculated by the Nernst equation. d. Decreases in the intracellular concentration of an ion will not change its equilibrium potential. e. none of the above

Ionotropic receptors are linked to G proteins which stimulate signal transduction pathways.

False

Leak ion channels require a ligand to open.

False

For full credit a testable hypothesis that does not replicate the clues given in part f must be provided. For example: 1. The model predicts that mACh receptors are located on perisynaptic glia. We could use immunocytochemistry to test whether mACh receptors are actually located on glia. Another example: 2. The model predicts that perisynaptic glia are releasing adenosine or an adenosine precursor molecule. We could test this by measuring adenosine before and after stimulation.

Inward

How does this micrograph support Cajal's neuron doctrine?

It shows the existence of the synaptic cleft, a space between neuron connections where neurotransmitter can diffuse (2 points). This indicates that the central nervous system is composed of individual neurons, not one giant reticulum (1 points).

You depolarize a neuron to +30 mV and hold the membrane at the potential. Threshold potential for this neuron is -50 mV. What you record is shown here, with current (Y-axis) plotted against time (Xaxis). Would you hypothesize that these currents are the result of the activity of two individual ion channels or the summed activity of many hundreds of ion channels? (1 point) (circle one) i. Two individual ion channels ii. Many ion channels

Many ion channels

Explain your answer to the previous question on oubain; specifically, what important role does the Na-K pump play in the life of a neuron?

No change. The sodium-potassium transporter is important in maintaining Na and K concentration gradients over the long term, but does not play a direct role in the action potential.

Sensory information is represented in an orderly manner in specific nervous system structures. Complete each of the following statements by circling the correct answer a. Maps in auditory cortex are called: TONOTOPIC / RETINOTOPIC / SOMATOTOPIC

TONOTOPIC

Pick two parts of the chemical synapse and describe how altering each would change the function of the synapse

There are many ways of answering this question, but providing accurate details and mechanism is required for full credit. Here are two examples: 1. Increasing the number of AMPA receptors. NMDA receptor activation can in some cases recruit more AMPA receptors to the postsynaptic membrane, increasing the strength of the synapse by causing higher amplitude postsynaptic potentials in the postsynaptic neuron. This occurs via calcium influx via the NMDA receptor activating signaling pathways inside of the postsynaptic neuron. 2. Decreasing the number of neurotransmitter transporters on the presynaptic neuron. For this neuron, the transporter is a glutamate transporter. Decreasing the number of transporters via application of an antagonist or via a genetic technique such as siRNA, CRISPR, or a knock out mouse would slow down the clearance of glutamate from the synaptic cleft, thus leaving glutamate in the cleft for a longer period of time where it could act on the AMPA and NMDA glutamate receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.

GABA ion channel receptors allow chloride ions to enter the neuron.

True

Glutamate action can differ depending on the receptors expressed and the resting membrane voltage of the postsynaptic cell.

True

Sodium-potassium pumps do not drive the afterhyperpolarization of the action potential.

True

T/F Metabotropic receptors are G-protein coupled receptors.

True

The diagram to the right represents neurons found within the retina. This information is given to you to use in answering the questions that follow: -the circuit is "Off Center/On Surround" If a retinal ganglion cell receives information primarily from cones rather than rods, what can you conclude about the location of the retinal ganglion cell body? i. It is located in the fovea region. ii. It is located in nasal (medial) retina.

Glutamate is a neurotransmitter that is found throughout the central nervous system. b. At the synapse formed by photoreceptors onto bipolar cells, bipolar cells can sometimes express metabotropic glutamate receptors. What are defining features of all metabotropic receptors? (CIRCLE ONE) i. They do not contain a pore that allows ion passage. ii. They can be excitatory or inhibitory. iii. They can be activated by other neurotransmitters such as GABA. iv. They trigger signal transduction pathways such as G proteins

i, ii, iv

T/F Presynaptic facilitation is the cellular basis for sensitization in the gill withdrawal reflex of Aplysia.

True

T/F Primary motor cortex neurons have the longest axons in the nervous system.

True

T/F The cerebellum sends information to the cortex by way of the ventrolateral (VL) nucleus of the thalamus.

True

Compare neural sex differences with neural sexual dimorphisms. Discuss: (a) define a sex difference and illustrate with an example, (b) define sexual dimorphism and illustrate with an example

(A) A sex difference is a Physical or behavioral difference between male and female individuals of the same species that varies along a continuum. An example is dendritic spine density in hippocampal neurons, which is bigger in females than in males but there is overlap in the data set. (B) A sexual dimorphism is a clearly defined, unconditional physical or behavioral difference between male and female individuals of the same species. An example is the spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus, which is a sexual dimorphism because adult males have this nucleus and females do not.

"A single cortical map is an example of the neurobiological concept of localization of function." Explain this statement using the somatotopic map as an example. In your answer, be sure to (a) define the concept of localization of function, (b) describe the somatotopic map, including its anatomical location and (c) use the somatotopic map to illustrate the neurobiological concept of localization of function, and (d) explain why this matters in the case of stroke

(a) Localization of function is the idea that specific regions of the brain are involved in specific functions. Note that these are not necessarily "bodily functions." Think, for example, of Wernicke's Area in temporal lobe. It is involved in the comprehension of language (not really a bodily function). For full credit the answer must go beyond "bodily function." (b) Somatosensory information from all over the body is processed initially in primary somatosensory cortex (SI). There are several somatotopic maps, or representations of the body, in SI. Larger regions of cortex are devoted to processing somatosensory information from some regions of body (e.g., hands, face in humans) than from others (e.g., back, upper arm). This map of the body is organized in an orderly manner from medial to lateral postcentral gyrus. (c) Different regions of SI are involved in processing somatosensory information from different regions of the body. For example, somatosensory info from the feet is processed in medial postcentral gyrus, while somatosensory information from the face is processed in lateral postcentral gyrus. (d) Depending on where the stroke occurs, the specific symptoms will vary. For example, if it occurred in a region that processed sensory input from the hands, the stroke will negatively impact or even eliminate somatosensation from the hand. For full credit the somatotopic map needs to be used as the example, per the exam question.

Above is a schematic of one spinal cord segment. Three neurons (labled A-C) are shown in their appropriate locations. Neuron A forms excitatory synapses onto neuron B, and neuron B forms inhibitory synapses onto neuron C. If a lesion occurred in the dorsal column, what effect would this have on a patient? Select one: a. Loss of somatosensation b. Loss of motor control

Cells in layer IV (four) of visual cortex receive direct input from neurons that have cell bodies where? Select one: a. in the lateral geniculate nucleus b. in the pulvinar nucleus c. in the retina d. in the medial geniculate nucleus

Consider a direct pathway through the retina. Assume an on center/off surround configuration. Assume that it is dark (there are no photons hitting the photoreceptor). Are more cGMP-activated sodium channels open or closed? Select one: a. Open b. Closed

Consider a direct pathway through the retina. Assume an on center/off surround configuration. Assume that it is dark (there are no photons hitting the photoreceptor). Assume the photoreceptor is a rod. Is rhodopsin active or not active? Select one: a. Not active. b. Active

Consider a direct pathway through the retina. Assume an on center/off surround configuration. Assume that it is dark (there are no photons hitting the photoreceptor). Is phosphodiesterase active or not active? Select one: a. Not active b. Active

Consider a direct pathway through the retina. Assume an on center/off surround configuration. Assume that it is dark (there are no photons hitting the photoreceptor). Is there more cGMP or GMP? Select one: a. more cGMP b. more GMP

Consider a direct pathway through the retina. Assume an on center/off surround configuration. Assume that it is dark (there are no photons hitting the photoreceptor). Is transducin active or not active? Select one: a. Not active b. Active

It is not unusual for television shows set in hospitals to use neurobiological topics in their story lines, but sometimes they make obvious mistakes. Which answer below best explains what is incorrect regarding the following scenario? Dr. Grey and associates wanted to test right hemispheric function. So they ran fMRI tests on a patient while covering her left eye, their logic being that visual information would be processed only the right hemisphere under these conditions. a. This scenario is wrong because a retina in the left eye can detect information about both the right and left visual fields. This information is then conveyed to the brain via the optic nerve, and then crosses over to the appropriate hemisphere via the optic chiasm. From there, the information will travel via the optic tract and eventually reach the respective primary visual cortex. Thus, both the right and left primary visual cortex will be activated. b. This scenario is wrong because a retina in the left eye can only detect information about both the right visual fields. This information is then conveyed to the brain via the optic nerve, and then crosses over to the appropriate hemisphere via the optic chiasm. From there, the information will travel via the optic tract and eventually reach the respective primary visual cortex. Thus, only the left primary visual cortex will be activated. c. There is nothing incorrect regarding this scenario. d. This scenario is wrong because the fMRI test would not be able to gather any data regarding hemispheric function. e. This scenario is wrong because a retina in the left eye can only detect information about both the right visual fields. This information is then conveyed to the brain via the optic nerve, and then crosses over to the appropriate hemisphere via the optic chiasm. From there, the information will travel via the optic tract and eventually reach the respective primary visual cortex. Thus, only the left primary visual cortex will be activated.

Pick the statement below that most accurately describes why localization of function matters in the case of stroke. Select one: a. Depending on where the stroke occurs, the specific symptoms will vary. For example, if it occurred in a region that processed sensory input from the hands, the stroke will negatively impact or even eliminate somatosensation from the hand. This is an excellent example of why localization of function matters for stroke victims. b. Depending on where the stroke occurs, the specific symptoms will vary. For example, if it occurred in a region that processed sensory input from the hands, the stroke will negatively impact or even eliminate somatosensation from the nose. This is an excellent example of why localization of function matters for stroke victims. c. Specific stroke symptoms will not vary by the brain region in which the stroke occurs. For example, if it occurred in a region that processed sensory input from the hands, the stroke will negatively impact or even eliminate somatosensation from not only the hand, but the arm as well. This is an excellent example of why localization of function matters for stroke victims.

Sensory information is represented in an orderly manner in specific nervous system structures. Complete the following statement by indicating the correct answer(s). Maps in somatosensory cortex are called: Select one or more: a. somatotopic b. tonotopic c. retinotopic

The diagram above represents neurons found within the retina. The circuit is "Off Center/On Surround" What effect would placing Rod 2 in the light have on the bipolar cell membrane potential? Select one: a. The bipolar cell will depolarize. b. The bipolar cell will hyperpolarize.

This is a cartoon representation of some neurons in the retina. When Rod 1 releases glutamate onto the bipolar cell in this circuit, it binds to postsynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors (specifically mGluR6) and results in the closing of Na+ channels. The bipolar cell also uses glutamate as its transmitter, but it binds to ionotropic glutamate receptors (non-NMDA) on the retinal ganglion cell (RGC), resulting in an increase in Na+ conductance (reversal potential of about 0 mV). The unlabeled cell synapses onto the terminal of Rod 1. Its neurotransmitter (GABA) acts to hyperpolarize the terminal membrane of Rod 1. Questions 1-9 refer to this circuit. For this RGC, which photoreceptor contributes to the direct pathway? Select one: a.Rod 1 b.Rod 2

Understanding nervous system function requires an understanding of the connections among different regions of the brain as well as their different physiology and functions. Demonstrate your understanding of motor system function by answering the following question: Which of the following receives the most input from premotor and prefrontal cortex? Select one: a. Basal ganglia b. Cerebellum c. Motor Cortex d. Onuf's nucleus e. None of these answers are correct.

What is the red X positioned on top of? Select one: a. Dorsal column b. Dorsal horn c. Ventral column d. Dorsal root ganglion

What symptoms would occur with this lesion of the spinal cord? (choose one) A. LOSS OF IPSILATERAL VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS B. LOSS OF CONTRALATERAL VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS

When light acts on Rod 2, what effect would you expect to see on the RGC, if this is an on-center pathway? Select one: a.It should have the opposite effect as light acting on Rod 1 does. b. It should have no effect. c.It should have the same effect as light acting on Rod 1 does.

Which brain region, if damaged, would induce a specific loss of pain sensation from a specific dermatome? Select one: a. A single dorsal root ganglion. b. Multiple dorsal root ganglions c. Cranial nerve 5 d. Cranial nerve 2 e. visual cortex

Which brain region, if damaged, would specifically induce Astereognosia? Select one: a. Wernicke's region, Brodman #22 b. primary visual cortex c. left or right posterior parietal cortex d. Fovea in the left retina e. primary somatosensory cortex

Which of the below includes neurons with cell bodies in the spinal cord? Select one: a. lower motor neurons b. basal ganglia neurons c. upper motor neurons d. cerebellar neurons

Which of the below makes terminals that release acetylcholine onto muscles? Select one: a. Lower motor neurons b. Dorsal root ganglion neurons c. Cerebellar neurons d. Primary motor cortex neurons e. Upper motor neurons

Which of the below processes sensory and motor activity to detect errors in movement? Select one: a. cerebellar neurons b. lower motor neurons c. upper motor neurons d. basal ganglia neurons

Which of the below produce axons that run in the rubrospinal tract? Select one: a. Red nucleus b. primary motor cortex c. vestibular nuclei d. superior colliculus

Which of the following are true statements about long term potentiation (LTP)? a. None of these answers are true. b. LTP has only been demonstrated in the hippocampus. c. LTP can be mediated by calcium exit from the postsynaptic neuron. d. LTP is the only mechanism underlying learning and memory. e. LTP can involve a decrease in AMPA receptor numbers in the postsynaptic membrane.

Which of the following directly innervate muscles? Select one: a. lower motor neurons b. basal ganglia neurons c. upper motor neurons d. cerebellar neurons

Which of these brain regions manufactures and delivers dopamine to the striatum? Select one: a. substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) b. substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNpr)

You simultaneously depolarize two neurons, and observe that the dendritic spines on the postsynaptic neuron grow larger, as in the following figure. Which of the following is more likely to have occurred? Select one: a. LTP b. LTD c. Neither of these answers are correct

Above is a schematic diagram looking down onto the visual system in a horizontal place. The eyes are looking at a screen with images projected onto it. For this question, assume the eyes stay focused on the dot in the center of the screen and that each eye can see all of the screen. As illustrated in the diagram, you flash an image of an 'X' on the left side of the dot and an image of an 'O' on the right side of the dot. Retinal ganglion cell 1 (RGC 1) is located in the temporal (lateral) portion of the left retina. RGC 2 is located in the temporal (lateral) portion of the right retina. If you cut the right optic nerve, information about which image will be lost? Select one: a. O b. X c. Neither

A or C

L-DOPA is the best (but not perfect) chemical treatment we have for Parkinson's Disease. (a) What features of L-DOPA make it effective? (b) Identify one thing that makes L-DOPA an imperfect treatment. You do not have to use complete sentences.

A) L-DOPA can be taken in by cells who make dopamine and then transmit that dopamine to the cells that need it. This makes it more effective and targeted than just administering dopamine. Also dopamine is very fragile to deal with. B) loses effectiveness and has side effects of dyskinesia

Glutamate is a neurotransmitter that is found throughout the central nervous system. At the synapse formed by photoreceptors onto bipolar cells, bipolar cells can sometimes express metabotropic glutamate receptors. What are defining features of all glutamatergic metabotropic receptors? Choose one or more answers. Select one or more: a. They trigger signal transduction pathways such as G proteins. b. They are monomeric. c. Glutamatergic metabotropic receptors can only be excitatory. d. None of these features are defining. e. They can be activated by other neurotransmitters such as GABA. f. They contain a pore which allows for ion passage.

A, B

Which of the following are true of neuroendocrine hormone action? a. The brain can make hormones. b. Activational hormone action can temporarily change neuron properties. c. Estradiol is found only in adult females. d. There is no hormone action in the nervous system before puberty. e. none of the above

A, B

For each description provided below (a-d), indicate which (if any) of the following aspects of sensory receptors (A-D) it describes accurately. A - Photoreceptors B - Hair cells C - Somatosensory receptors D - none of the above Contains specialized structures for sensory detection

A, B, C

Which of the following are true of upper motor neurons? a. Those with axons in the rubrospinal tract have cell bodies in the red nucleus. b. Those with axons in the corticospinal tract have cell bodies in the cortex. c. They project to lower motoneurons. d. They may receive input from either or both the basal ganglia or cerebellar systems. e. none of the above

A, B, C, D

Which of the following are true statements as to why Parkinson's Disease also involves cognitive problems and mood disorders? (multiple answers allowed) Select one or more: a. Cells are lost from the locus coeruleus. b. Other neuromodulators such as norepinephrine and serotonin also exhibit decreases, and these neuromodulators are integral to cognition and mood. c. Cells are lost from the dorsal raphe. d. None of these choices are true. e. Dopamine regulates more than just motor systems

A, B, C, E

Which of the following are true of alpha motor neurons? a. They receive excitatory synaptic input from both upper motoneurons and excitatory interneurons. b. They make acetylcholine to be released onto muscle fibers. c. Their cell bodies are located in dorsal root ganglia. d. Their cell bodies are located in the ventral horn. e. none of the above

A, B, D

Which of the following are true of the motor control systems? a. The PMA and SMA controls motor planning. b. Primary motor cortex primarily controls movements made by contralateral muscles. c. All motor movement is controlled via the rubro-spinal tract. d. Cerebellar cortex primarily influences movements made by ipsilateral muscles. e. none of the above

A, B, D

Which of the following are true of upper motor neurons? (multiple choices allowed) Select one or more: a. Those with axons in the tectospinal tract have cell bodies in the superior colliculus. b. Those with axons in the rubrospinal tract have cell bodies in the red nucleus. c. None of these answers are true. d. They project to muscle fibers. e. Those with axons in the corticospinal tract have cell bodies in the cortex.

A, B, E

Which of the following are true statements about electrical synapses? a. They transmit information faster than do chemical synapses b. Their function will be inhibited by application of a drug that blocks voltage-gated calcium channels. c. They allow for direct current flow from one neuron to another. d. Structurally, they include gap junctions made of connexion proteins. e. none of the above

A, C, D

Which of the following are true of upper motor neurons? Select one or more: a.Those in the superior colliculus are involved in orienting movements of head and eyes. b.Some have cell bodies in the supplemental motor area of the frontal lobe. c.Those with axons in the rubrospinal tract have cell bodies in the spinal cord. d.Those in the vestibular nuclei are involved in control of axial (midline) musculature.

A, D

Which of the following are disadvantages of L-DOPA treatment for Parkinson's Disease? (multiple answers allowed) Select one or more: a. Side effects such as dyskinesia b. None of these choices are relevant disadvantages. c. Requires access to a high quality medical center and skilled surgeons to implant deep brain electrodes. d. Effectiveness can vary and even decrease over time. e. L-DOPA treatment does not treat the underlying cause of the motor symptoms of Parkinson's Disease, such as the death of dopamine-producing neurons

A, D, E

You are studying a synapse in the mammalian striatum for your first project in graduate school. During your studies, you make the following observations: -you can mimic the effect of presynaptic stimulation by applying nicotine -the effects of nicotine occur very quickly -you can block the post-synaptic potential using curare, but atropine has no effect -you see no effect of applying NMDA or AMPA -forskolin, an activator of adenylyl cyclase, has no effect A. Which neurotransmitter receptor type would you conclude mediates this synapse? Ionotropic / metabotropic B. Which of the following would you conclude to be true at this synapse? i. The neurotransmitter binds to a ligand-gated ion channel. ii. The neurotransmitter is acetylcholine (ACh). iii. The postsynaptic response does not involve G proteins. iv. The synaptic cleft contains acetylcholinesterase. v. Ion channels open within a millisecond of neurotransmitter binding to the receptors. vi. none of the above C. If you block voltage-gated calcium channel function using an antagonist, and then stimulate the presynaptic neuron, what would the hypothesized effect be on the postsynaptic response? It would be: LARGER / SAME SIZE / SMALLER / ABOLISHED WHY? D. For your next experiment you expose the synapse to parathion, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, for 1 hour. You then stimulate the presynaptic neuron. What is your hypothesized effect on the postsynaptic response? It would be: LARGER / SAME SIZE / SMALLER / ABOLISHED WHY?

A. Ionotropic B. i, ii, iii, iv, v C. ABOLISHED, Calcium entry into the presynaptic neuron is blocked, which will stop neurotransmitter release. D. LARGER, Acetylcholine is no longer broken down into choline and acetate, so more of it is available to bind to the receptors on the presynaptic neuron.

Meitzen's Favorite Enzyme:

Aromatase

Above is a schematic diagram looking down onto the visual system in a horizontal place. The eyes are looking at a screen with images projected onto it. For this question, assume the eyes stay focused on the dot in the center of the screen and that each eye can see all of the screen. As illustrated in the diagram, you flash an image of an 'X' on the left side of the dot and an image of an 'O' on the right side of the dot. Retinal ganglion cell 1 (RGC 1) is located in the temporal (lateral) portion of the left retina. RGC 2 is located in the temporal (lateral) portion of the right retina. RGC 2 will project to which thalamus? Select one: a. Contralateral b. Ipsilateral

Above is a schematic of one spinal cord segment. Three neurons (labled A-C) are shown in their appropriate locations. Neuron A forms excitatory synapses onto neuron B, and neuron B forms inhibitory synapses onto neuron C. If neuron B is inhibitory, what effect would activation of neuron A have on neuron C's target muscle? Select one: a. More excitation b. Less excitation

Consider the above graph. Each dot represents the frequency of miniature excitatory post synaptic currents recorded from an individual neuron from an undisclosed brain region. The horizontal line is the mean. The P value is from a t-test and is significant. The recommended first thing to do when evaluating a graph is: Select one: a. PANIC b. Figure out each axis c. Assume that you know what the graph is about

Consider the above graph. Each dot represents the frequency of miniature excitatory post synaptic currents recorded from an individual neuron from an undisclosed brain region. The horizontal line is the mean. The P value is from a t-test and is significant. Which of the following is an accurate description of the data sets depicted on the graph? Select one: a. The data sets overlap. b. The data sets do not overlap. c. Neither of the choices presented here are accurate.

Damage to primary motor cortex results in one of the disorders listed below. Select the appropriate disorder. Select one: a. Parkinson's Disease b. Paresis c. Aphasia d. Ballism e. Ideomotor Apraxia

For this lesion, damage in which area would result in loss of arm movement? Select one: a. Lumbar enlargement b. Cervical enlargement

If a retinal ganglion cell receives information primarily from cones rather than rods, what can you conclude about the location of the retinal ganglion cell body? Select one: a. It is located in nasal (medial) retina. b. It is located in the fovea region. c. It is located in the lateral retina.

If direct electrical stimulation occurred in the portion of the right somatosensory cortex that processed information from somatosensory receptors in the hand, what would be perceived? a. A touch in both hands. b. A touch on the left hand. c. A touch on the right hand. d. None of the answers are correct. e. All of these answers are correct.

If the cell membrane were selectively permeable to Ion 4 (D-) at rest, the resting membrane potential would be: Select one: a.zero b.positive c. negative

Indicate the sensory system(s) to which the following statement applies best. Lesions to the dorsal column would negatively impact this sensory system. Choose one or more answers. Select one or more: a. Gustatory system b. Somatosensory system c. Visual system d. Auditory system e. Olfactory system

Sensory information is represented in an orderly manner in specific nervous system structures. Complete the following statement by circling the correct answer(s). Spinal cord injuries may impact sensory information from which system? Select one or more: a. Gustatory b. Somatosensory c. Visual

The diagram above represents neurons found within the retina. The circuit is "Off Center/On Surround" What effect would placing Rod 2 in the light induce on Rod 2's membrane potential? Select one: a. depolarization b. hyperpolarization

The diagram above represents neurons found within the retina. The circuit is "Off Center/On Surround" What effect would placing Rod 2 in the light induce on the horizontal cell? Select one: a. depolarize b. hyperpolarize

Understanding nervous system function requires an understanding of the connections among different regions of the brain as well as their different physiology and functions. Demonstrate your understanding of motor system function by answering the following question: Which of the following works via disinhibition? Select one: a. The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis b. Basal ganglia c. None of these choices are correct d. Cerebellum e. Motor cortex

Which brain region, if damaged, would result in the specific disorder prosopagnosia? Select one: a. primary visual cortex b. ventral visual stream c. right olfactory cortex d. lateral geniculate nucleus e. dorsal visual stream

Which of the below produce axons that run in the vestibulospinal tract? Select one: a. red nucleus b. vestibular nuclei c. superior colliculus d. primary motor cortex

Which of the following generates ideas for possible movements? Select one: a. Lower motor neurons b. Premotor cortex c. Hair cells d. Lateral geniculate nucleus neurons e. Cerebellar neurons

Which of the following is an accurate definition and example of a neural sexual dimorphism? Select one: a. A sexual dimorphism is a clearly defined, unconditional physical or behavioral difference between male and female individuals of the same species. An example is dendritic spine density in the hippocampus, which is a sexual dimorphism because adult females exhibit more spines than do adult males, albeit with overlap in the data sets. b. A sexual dimorphism is a clearly defined, unconditional physical or behavioral difference between male and female individuals of the same species. An example is the spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus, which is a sexual dimorphism because adult males exhibit a larger volume of this nucleus than females, and there is no overlap between the data sets.

Which of the following statements correctly explains whether L-DOPA treatment would work if no dopaminergic neurons are left alive in the Substantia Nigra pars compacta? Select one: a. L-DOPA treatment would work if no dopaminergic neurons are left alive in the Substantia Nigra pars compacta. This is because the enzyme for converting L-DOPA into dopamine is widely distributed throughout the nervous system. b. L-DOPA treatment would not work if no dopaminergic neurons are left alive in the Substantia Nigra pars compacta. Neurons with functioning dopamine synthesis pathways are necessary for L-DOPA to be converted to dopamine, and properly delivered to the striatum. c. None of these statements are correct. d. L-DOPA treatment would not work if no dopaminergic neurons are left alive in the Substantia Nigra pars compacta. This is because Substantia Nigra pars compacta neurons are necessary for proper delivery of L-DOPA to the subthalamic nucleus. e. L-DOPA treatment would work if no dopaminergic neurons are left alive in the Substantia Nigra pars compacta. This is because L-DOPA can directly stimulate dopamine receptors. Hence the dopamine synthesis pathway is not necessary.

Which of the following are true of neural sexual differentiation? (multiple questions allowed) Select one or more: a. Environmental influences do not modulate neural development. b. Estradiol can contribute to the masculinization of the brain. c. Testosterone is converted into estradiol. d. A person's genetic sex always matches their phenotypic sex. e. None of these choices are correct.

B, C

Which of the following are true of neural sexual differentiation? a. Testosterone is converted into estradiol by the enzyme 5α-reductase. b. Estradiol contributes to the masculinization of the brain. c. Environmental changes can influence neural development. d. A person's genetic sex always matches their phenotypic sex. e. None of the above

B, C

T/F Stepping on a tack can result in excitation of ipsilateral leg flexor muscles and of contralateral leg extensor muscles.

True

An important therapy for Parkinson's Disease is deep brain stimulation. Which of the following are true statements regarding deep brain stimulation? (multiple choices allowed) Select one or more: a. Deep brain stimulation is used more often than L-DOPA treatment. b. A disadvantage is that it is very expensive. c. An advantage of deep brain stimulation is that the technique does not rely on the presence of living SNpc neurons. d. Deep brain stimulation can target the subthalamic nucleus. e. None of these choices are true.

B, D

Which of the following are true statements about the coding of sensory information? a. None of these answers are true. b. The strength of a stimulus can be coded by the number of evoked action potentials. c. Whether a stimulus is perceived as a touch, smell, or vision does not depend in part on which region of primary sensory cortex receives the neural signal. d. The environmental stimulus detected by the sensory receptor must be transduced into a language that the central nervous system can process. e. Detection of environmental chemicals is enabled by the auditory system.

B, D

Which of the following are true of synaptic depression at the NMJ in mouse soleus muscle? a. It involves an increase in the amount of neurotransmitter released in response to an action potential in the neuron. b. It cannot be blocked using a nicotinic receptor antagonist. c. None of the answers are true. d. It cannot be blocked using a muscarinic receptor antagonist. e. It can be blocked by preventing calcium increases in perisynaptic Schwann cells.

B, E

For this RGC, which photoreceptor contributes to the indirect pathway? Select one: a. Rod 1 b. Rod 2

B. Rod 2

Understanding nervous system function requires an understanding of the connections among different regions of the brain as well as their different physiology and functions. Demonstrate your understanding of motor system function by answering the following questions Which of the following is more involved in making the decision to initiate a - movement? BASAL GANGLIA / MOTOR CORTEX / CEREBELLUM

Basal Ganglia

A patient presents herself with nonfluent, telegraphic speech. However, the patient exhibits excellent comprehension of verbal tests and what speech there is appears appropriate. (6 points total). a. You hypothesize that this reflects a stroke of the middle cerebral artery. Circle where on the artery that you expect to find the stroke. What type of Aphasia? Why is this evidence for the neurobiological concept of localization of function?

Broca's Aphasia This concept refers to the idea that different regions of the brain are involved in different Functions (2 points). For full credit, illustrate this concept using Broca's as a specific example (2 points)- to illustrate it, you need to provide the region and the function of your example. The most obvious is to contrast the different aphasias - damage in Broca's area in the frontal lobe gives rise to a deficit in the production of language, whereas damage in Wernicke's area in the temporal lobe results in a deficit in comprehension. This is a clear example of different regions of the brain being involved in different functions, even though both participate in language.

T/F The D2 dopamine receptor is a metabotropic receptor.

True

Below are three neurons from a neural circuit. When Neuron A releases neurotransmitter onto Neuron B, it causes sodium channels to open in the postsynaptic membrane. The synapse from neuron B to neuron C is mediated by a synapse with a reversal potential depolarized compared to threshold potential. Under starting conditions, Neuron B is firing 1 action potential/10 seconds. If you increase extracellular potassium concentration surrounding Neuron A, what effect on Neuron C would you expect to see (compared to starting conditions)? Select one or more: a. No effect. b. Hyperpolarization c. Depolarization

For an on center, off surround retinal circuit, under which of these circumstances would the retinal ganglion neuron be maximally depolarized? Select one: a. No light in the center, no light in the surround b. No light in the center, light in the surround c. Light in the center, no light in the surround d. Light in the center, light in the surround

For each description below, indicate the sensory system to which it applies best. You can use an answer more than once, but use only one answer per space.(5 points) A - auditory system B - visual system C - somatosensory system D - olfactory system lesions to the dorsal column would negatively impact this sensory system

If the cell membrane were selectively permeable to Ion 2 (B+) at rest, the resting membrane potential would be: Select one: a.zero b.positive c.negative

Indicate the sensory system(s) to which the following statement applies best. Sensory receptors sometimes contain increased expression of sodium potassium pumps. Select one or more: a. Auditory system b. Gustatory system c. Visual system d. Olfactory system e. Somatosensory system

Rod 2 releases a neurotransmitter onto the unlabeled cell. Given that this is an on-center pathway, what type of receptor is present at the synapse between rod 2 and the unlabeled cell? Select one: a. GABA receptors b. metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR6), which hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane c. ionotropic glutamate receptors like AMPA, which depolarize the postsynaptic membrane

Sensory information is represented in an orderly manner in specific nervous system structures. Complete the following statement by circling the correct answer(s): Maps of audition, somatosensation, and vision can all be found in: Select one or more: a. Retina b. Pyriform Cortex c. Thalamus

Stimulation of Rod 1 by light will have what effect on the bipolar cell, if this is part of an on center pathway? Select one: a. It will have no effect on the bipolar cell. b. It will hyperpolarize the bipolar cell. c. It will depolarize the bipolar cell.

The axons originating from the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway associated somatosensory receptors in the left hand are re-directed to innervate an area more medial in the ipsilateral primary somatosensory cortex. The left hand is then touched. What would be the most likely perception? a. A touch is perceived on the right elbow. b. All of these answers are correct. c. A touch is perceived in the left elbow. d. A touch is perceived on the right side of the face. e. A touch is perceived on the left side of the face.

This image represents a modern neuroanatomical technique. In what anatomical orientation is this slice of brain? Select one: a. None of these answers are correct. b. Horizontal c. Coronal d. Saggital

Understanding nervous system function requires an understanding of the connections among different regions of the brain as well as their different physiology and functions. Demonstrate your understanding of motor system function by answering the following question: Which of the following is more involved in checking whether an ordered movement was actually performed? Select one: a. Motor Cortex b. None of these choices are correct c. Cerebullum d. Lateral geniculate nucleus

What impact will lesion of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) have on the striatum? Select one: a. Lesions of the substantia nigra pars compacta will decrease serotonin release into the striatum. b. No impact, because the SNpc does not project to the striatum. c. Lesions of the substantia nigra pars compacta will decrease dopamine release into the striatum.

What impact will lesions of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) have on the final output of the direct pathway into motor cortex? Select one: a. Since direct pathway neurons express excitatory D1 receptors, increased dopamine release will cause more excitation of these neurons. This will ultimately cause increased excitatory activity from thalamus to the motor cortex, and will generally augment motor function. b. No impact, because the SNpc does not project to the striatum. c. Since direct pathway neurons express excitatory D1 receptors, decreased dopamine release will cause less excitation of these neurons. This will ultimately cause decreased excitatory activity from thalamus to the motor cortex, and will generally inhibit motor function. d. Since direct pathway neurons express inhibitory D1 receptors, decreased dopamine release will cause more excitation of these neurons. This will ultimately cause increased excitatory activity from thalamus to the motor cortex, and will generally augment motor function. e. None of these choices are correct.

What impact will lesions of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) have on the final output of the indirect pathway into motor cortex? Select one: a. The indirect pathway neurons express excitatory D2 receptors. Thus, lesion of the SNpc and subsequent decreased dopamine release will cause less excitation of these neurons. This will ultimately increase excitatory activity from thalamus to the motor cortex, and will generally augment motor function and programs. b. The indirect pathway neurons express inhibitory D2 receptors. Thus, lesion of the SNpc and subsequent increased dopamine release will cause more inhibition of these neurons. This will ultimately increase excitatory activity from thalamus to the motor cortex, and will generally excite motor function and programs. c. The indirect pathway neurons express inhibitory D2 receptors. Thus, lesion of the SNpc and subsequent decreased dopamine release will cause less inhibition of these neurons. This will ultimately decrease excitatory activity from thalamus to the motor cortex, and will generally inhibit motor function and programs. d. None of these answers are correct. e. No impact, because the SNpc does not project to the striatum.

What symptoms would occur with this lesion of the spinal cord? Select one: a. LOSS OF CONTRALATERAL SOMATOSENSATION b. LOSS OF VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS c. LOSS OF IPSILATERAL SOMATOSENSATION

What symptoms would occur with this lesion of the spinal cord? Select one: a. LOSS OF REFLEX MOVEMENTS b. NONE OF THESE ANSWERS ARE CORRECT c. LOSS OF BOTH VOLUNTARY & REFLEX MOVEMENTS d. LOSS OF VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT

What symptoms would occur with this lesion of the spinal cord? (choose one) A. LOSS OF VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS B. LOSS OF REFLEX MOVEMENTS C. LOSS OF BOTH VOLUNTARY & REFLEX MOVEMENTS

Which neurotransmitter is primarily released by the horizontal cell? Select one: a. Serotonin b. Dopamine c. GABA d. Glutamate

Which of the below feature some of the longest axons in the nervous system? Select one: a. superior colliculus b. Red nucleus c. primary motor cortex d. Vestibular nuclei

Which of the below processes premotor activity to help select motor cortex function? Select one: a. lower motor neurons b. upper motor neurons c. basal ganglia neurons d. cerebellar neurons

Which of the below statements is an accurate definition and example of a neural sex difference? Select one: a. A sex difference is a physical or behavioral difference between male and female individuals of the same species that features a distinct and large gap between the data sets. An example is the size of the spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus, which is smaller in females than in males with no overlap between the data sets. b. A sex difference is a physical or behavioral difference between male and female individuals of the same species that varies along a continuum. An example is the size of the spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus, which is smaller in females than in males with no overlap between the data sets. c. A sex difference is a physical or behavioral difference between male and female individuals of the same species that varies along a continuum. An example is dendritic spine density in hippocampal neurons, which is bigger in females than in males but there is overlap between the data sets. d. A sex difference is a physical or behavioral difference between male and female individuals of the same species that features a distinct and large gap between the data sets. An example is dendritic spine density in hippocampal neurons, which is bigger in females than in males but there is overlap between the data sets.

Which of the following are true of the motor control systems? (multiple choices allowed) Select one or more: a. The primary motor cortex controls motor planning. b. Motor movement is independent of lower motor neuron activation. c. None of these answers are true. d. Primary motor cortex primarily controls movements made by ipsilateral muscles. e. Cerebellar cortex primarily influences movements made by contralateral muscles.

Which of the following could result in a decrease in neurotransmitter release by a presynaptic neuron? Select one or more: a.an increase in enzymatic degradation of the neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft b.an increase in sodium conductance through voltage-gated sodium channels in the presynaptic neuron c.a decrease in extracellular calcium levels outside the presynaptic terminal d.application of the appropriate neurotransmitter receptor antagonist

You simultaneously depolarize two neurons, and observe that the dendritic spines on the postsynaptic neuron grow larger, as in the following figure. Which would you be likely to hypothesize? Select one: a. Neither of these answers would be a likely hypothesis. b. Decreased AMPA receptor expression c. Increased AMPA receptor expression

T/F The cerebellar motor loop includes projections from ventrolateral (VL) thalamus to motor cortex.

True

Understanding nervous system function requires an understanding of the connections among different regions of the brain as well as their different physiology and functions. Demonstrate your understanding of motor system function by answering the following questions Which of the following receives the most input from sensory cortex? BASAL GANGLIA / CEREBELLUM / MOTOR CORTEX

Cerebellum

T/F The cerebellum receives somatosensory information.

True

Ideomotor Apraxia primarily results from damage to which area? Select one: a. Primary Motor Cortex b. Striatum to external globus pallidus projection c. Substantia Nigra pars reticulata d. Premotor Area in the Cortex e. Subthalamic nucleus

If somatosensory receptors are stimulated on the right hand by a physical stimulus, which area of cortex would be electrically active? a. Both of these answers are correct. b. Neither of these answers are correct. c. Ipsilateral primary somatosensory cortex d. Contralateral primary somatosensory cortex

Oubain is a drug that blocks the sodium-potassium pump. If you applied oubain to neurons, what would be its immediate effect on action potentials? Select one or more: a.there would be no undershoot b.decrease in action potential amplitude c.increase in action potential frequency d.no change e.increase in action potential duration

Which of the below directly controls primarily proximal arm muscles? Select one: a. premotor cortex b. superior colliculus c. vestibular nuclei d. red nucleus

Which of the below produce axons that run in the tectospinal tract? Select one: a. vestibular nuclei b. red nucleus c. primary motor cortex d. superior colliculus

Which of the below statements correctly describes the somatotopic map, including it correct anatomical location? Select one: a. Somatosensory information from all over the body is processed initially in secondary somatosensory cortex (SI). There are several somatotopic maps, or representations of the body, in SI. Larger regions of cortex are devoted to processing somatosensory information from some regions of body (e.g., hands, face in humans) than from others (e.g., back, upper arm). This map of the body is organized in an orderly manner from medial to lateral postcentral gyrus. b. Somatosensory information from all over the body is processed initially in primary somatosensory cortex (SI). There is one somatotopic map, or representation of the body, in SI. Larger regions of cortex are devoted to processing somatosensory information from some regions of body (e.g., hands, face in humans) than from others (e.g., back, upper arm). This map of the body is organized in an orderly manner from medial to lateral postcentral gyrus. c. Somatosensory information from all over the body is processed initially in primary somatosensory cortex (SI). There are several somatotopic maps, or representations of the body, in SI. Equal regions of cortex are devoted to processing somatosensory information from regions of body (e.g., hands, face, back, upper arm in humans). This map of the body is organized in an orderly manner from medial to lateral postcentral gyrus. d. Somatosensory information from all over the body is processed initially in primary somatosensory cortex (SI). There are several somatotopic maps, or representations of the body, in SI. Larger regions of cortex are devoted to processing somatosensory information from some regions of body (e.g., hands, face in humans) than from others (e.g., back, upper arm). This map of the body is organized in an orderly manner from medial to lateral postcentral gyrus. e. Somatosensory information from all over the body is processed initially in primary somatosensory cortex (SI). There are several somatotopic maps, or representations of the body, in SI. Larger regions of cortex are devoted to processing somatosensory information from some regions of body (e.g., hands, face in humans) than from others (e.g., back, upper arm). This map of the body is organized in an orderly manner from medial to lateral precentral gyrus.

Which of the following are true of alpha motor neurons? (multiple answers allowed) Select one or more: a. Their cell bodies are located in dorsal root ganglia. b. They receive inhibitory synaptic input from both upper motoneurons and excitatory interneurons. c. Their cell bodies are located in the dorsal horn. d. None of these answers are true. e. They make glutamate to be released onto muscle fiber

Which structure, if damaged, would specifically result in hemifield neglect? Select one: a. left posterior parietal cortex b. dorsal column c. optic nerve from the left and right retinas d. right posterior parietal cortex e. primary visual cortex

You are working in a laboratory, studying synaptic depression at the neuromuscular junction of the mouse soleus muscle. You find that the depression can be blocked by these manipulations: blocking calcium increases within the perisynaptic glia, treating with an adenosine A1 receptor antagonist, and treating with a mAChR antagonist. The depression cannot be blocked by treating with a nAChR antagonist. Which of the following are a relevant and testable hypothesis about this synapse, including an accurate description of how the hypothesis would be tested? (choose one answer) Select one: a. I hypothesize that adenosine A1 receptors are located on the presynaptic neuron terminal. I would test this hypothesis by using a anatomical technique such as MRI coupled with Clarity. b. I hypothesize that adenosine A1 receptors are located on the presynaptic neuron terminal. I would test this hypothesis by using an anatomical database such as the Allen Brain Atlas. c. I hypothesize that adenosine A1 receptors are located on the presynaptic neuron terminal. I would test this hypothesis by using a anatomical technique such as MRI combined with immunocytochemistry. d. I hypothesize that adenosine A1 receptors are located on the presynaptic neuron terminal. I would test this hypothesis by using a anatomical technique such as electron microscopy combined with immunocytochemistry. e. None of these hypotheses and methods are accurate, relevant or testable.

Why does Parkinson's Disease involve cognitive problems and mood disorders?

Dopamine regulates more than just motor systems. Also, cells are lost from the locus coeruleus (norepinephrine) and the dorsal raphe (serotonin). These neuromodulators are involved in cognition and mood.

Damage to the striatum to external globus pallidus projection results in one of the disorders listed below. Select the appropriate disorder: Select one: a. Cerebellar ataxia b. Ballism c. Parkinson's Disease d. Parkinson's Disease e. Huntington's Disease

How will a decrease in dopamine in the striatum change motor function and what disorder does this constitute? Select one: a. Ultimately, motor function will be inhibited, and this is characteristic of Huntington's Disease. b. Ultimately, motor function will be inhibited, and this is characteristic of ballism. c. Ultimately, motor function will be augmented, and this is characteristic of Parkinson's Disease. d. None of these choices are correct. e. Ultimately, motor function will be inhibited, and this is characteristic of Parkinson's Disease.

Indicate the sensory system(s) to which the following statement applies best. Includes neurons with somas in the dorsal root ganglion. Choose one or more answers. Select one or more: a. Olfactory system b. Gustatory system c. Visual system d. Auditory system e. Somatosensory system

Which of the following are false statements regarding glia? a. They can influence action potential conductance. b. Schwann cells form myelin in the peripheral nervous system. c. Astrocytes play an important role in regulating extracellular K+ concentrations. d. Glial cells synthesize neurosteroids. e. none of the above

Which of the following are true of rod photoreceptors? a. They generate action potentials. b. They depolarize in response to light. c. They operate only in high levels of light. d. They express one of three different types of opsins. e. none of the above

Which of the following could result in a decrease in neurotransmitter release by a presynaptic neuron? a. Increased myelination of the axon b. application of low concentrations of a drug such as Nefiracetam that acts as an agonist on voltage-gated calcium ion channels c. addition of SNARE proteins in the presynaptic terminal d. increasing the number of vesicles docked at the presynaptic terminal e. none of the above

What type of micrograph is this? Electron / light

Electron the presynaptic neuron is circled Can tell based on the presence of synaptic vesicles

Stroke cases helped establish phrenology at the basis for modern neuroscience.

False

T / F In somatotopic maps, each area of the body is proportionally represented compared to the actual size of that area of the body.

False

T / F Patients with hemifeld neglect have a deficit in rod photosensation in the visual cortex.

False

T / F Somatosensory receptors have more complex response properties than do neurons in primary somatosensory cortex

False

T / F The spinothalamic pathway, which mediates nociception, crosses over at the level of the thalamus.

False

T / F Two-point discrimination is a measure of the weakest pressure stimulus detected by photosensory receptor neurons.

False

T/F Glutamate is always excitatory.

False

T/F IPSPs always cause hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane.

False

T/F If a synapse has a reversal potential that is more positive than threshold, then that synapse is inhibitory

False

T/F Mechanosensory information can crossover at the level of the spinal cord, and not the medulla.

False

T/F Neurons in premotor cortex show increases in activity that coincide with the execution of a movement.

False

T/F Ocular dominance columns are characterized by neurons that all respond most strongly to bars of light in a particular orientation.

False

T/F Synaptic depression at the neuromuscular junction is an example of feedback through neurotransmitter receptors on muscle cells.

False

T/F The D1 dopamine receptor is an ionotropic receptor.

False

T/F The cerebellar motor loop includes projections from lateral geniculate (LG) thalamus to motor cortex.

False

T/F The limbic system is functionally separate from the neocortex, with no interconnections.

False

T/F The strength of an olfactory stimulus is coded by the amplitude of the action potential it triggers

False

T/F Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) is the rate limiting step in the synthesis of serotonin (5-HE).

False

T/F The equilibrium potential for a given ion is the membrane potential at which the ionic concentration inside the cell is equal to the concentration outside the cell.

False, Equilibrium potential for a given ion is the membrane potential at which the chemical driving force (concentration gradient) and the electrical driving force are equal (and opposing). Because ionic movement alters the charge distribution across the membrane, the ion does not reach chemical equilibrium. We are talking electrochemical equilibrium here.

T/F At rest, the open ion channels in the membrane of a neuron are primarily voltage-gated potassium channels.

False, Leak potassium channels. V-gated K channels are not open at rest.

Consider a newly discovered creature whose neurons function according to the same principles that squid and human neurons do. The following ionic concentration ratios are known: b. When you measure the cell membrane potential, you find that it is -60 mV. At this point, is the membrane more permeable to Ion 1 (A+) or Ion 2 (B+)? Explain your reasoning. (3 points)

It is more permeable to ion 2, B+. (1 point). The reason why is that the Eion for B+ is very negative (calculated via the Nernst equation). The resting membrane potential directly relates to what ion channels are open at rest. Since the resting membrane potential is -60 mV, that is much closer to Eion of B+. (2 points)

LESS

(a) define disinhibition, and (b) use the circuit you just described in the previous question (the basal ganglia indirect or direct motor loop) to (c) explain why the term disinhibition is used and (d) illustrate the concept of disinhibition

Less excitatory input from SN to striatum would decrease activity in the striatopallidal projection. This projection normally inhibits neurons in the internal GP, so less activity would mean less inhibition - or disinhibition - of the iGP neurons.

The additional reading identified a longer list of symptoms than we did in class -- list as many symptoms of PD as you can find mentioned in the reading.

No emotion Clenched muscles in hands and arms On/off syndrome Tremor at rest Postural inability Akinesia Bradykinesia Difficulty initiating movement, slowness in movement, and paucity or incompleteness of movement Walking with shorter steps Stopped posture Dementia

T/F Neurons in motor cortex show increases in activity that coincide with the execution of a movement.

True

T/F Neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and neurons in layer IV (layer four) of primary visual cortex are monocular

True

Which form of synaptic plasticity is known to involve a change in action potential shape at the terminal to something like that shown in 'C' ? (1 point) (circle one) i. long term depression (LTD) ii. synaptic depression iii. presynaptic facilitation iv. long term potentiation (LTP)

Presynaptic Facilitation

T/F Neurons in the striatum can potentially express either D1 or D2 dopamine receptors.

True

Consider the graph at right. Each dot represents the frequency of miniature excitatory post synaptic currents recorded from an individual neuron in the ventral striatum. The horizontal line is the mean. The P value is from a t-test and is significant. Female neurons show an increased mEPSC frequency compared to male neurons. a. This data is an example of a: SEX DIMORPHISM / SEX DIFFERENCE

SEX DIFFERENCE, b/c data sets overlap

Sensory information is represented in an orderly manner in specific nervous system structures. Complete each of the following statements by circling the correct answer b. Maps of nociception, audition, somatosensation, and vision can all be found in: THALAMUS / RETINA / PYRIFORM CORTEX

THALAMUS

T/F One side effect of L-DOPA treatment for Parkinson's Disease symptoms is L-DOPA induced dyskinesia.

True

Use the concept of opposing driving forces to explain the correct answer to the previous question.

The size of the equilibrium potential for an ion depends on the size of the opposing chemical driving force (i.e., the concentration gradient) and on whether the ion carries one or two charges. In this case, all ions carry a single charge. Ion 4 has the largest concentration gradient (chemical driving force), therefore it will require the largest membrane potential (electrical driving force) to balance the chemical driving force and achieve electrochemical equilibrium. If you want to confirm this, plug the numbers into the Nernst equation for each ion.

T / F If a synapse has a reversal potential that is more positive than threshold, then that synapse is excitatory.

True

T / F Mechanosensory information can crossover at the level of the medulla, not the spinal cord.

True

T / F Phantom limb experiences can involve proprioceptive, painful, and/or tactile (touch) experiences.

True

T / F Presynaptic facilitation is the cellular basis for the increased synaptic strength underlying sensitization in the gill withdrawal reflex of Aplysia.

True

T/F A given neurotransmitter can be either inhibitory or excitatory, depending on the receptors expressed by the postsynaptic cell.

True

T/F A motor unit is defined as a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates.

True

T/F Both the basal ganglia and the cerebellum receive inputs from cerebral cortex, but the cerebellum receives relatively more inputs from sensory cortex.

True

T/F Cervical spinal segments are rostral to sacral spinal segments.

True

T/F Dopamine (DA) can have excitatory or inhibitory effects, depending on the type of dopamine receptor expressed by the postsynaptic neuron.

True

T/F Focusing your fovea towards an area can enhance your ability to detect a stimulus in that area.

True

T/F Gamma motor neurons play an important role in ensuring that the stretch reflex can occur regardless of the starting length of the muscle.

True

T/F Glutamate and dopamine can be either inhibitory or excitatory, depending on the receptors expressed by the postsynaptic cell.

True

T/F Hair Cells in the auditory system can be either depolarized or hyperpolarized by the appropriate stimulus.

True

T/F In somatotopic maps, an area of the body may be over-represented compared to the actual size of that area of the body.

True

T/F In this situation, the ion with the largest concentration gradient will have the largest (i.e., farthest from zero) equilibrium potential.

True

T/F Local circuitry in the spinal cord can be activated to induce locomotor activity independent of inputs from the motor cortex.

True

T/F NMDA receptors are glutamate receptors that are gated both by glutamate, glycine, and by voltage, and are composed of multiple subunits.

True

T/F Neocortex is organized in six layers.

True

T/F Neuromodulatory synapses can alter the response of a postsynaptic neuron to other synaptic inputs by closing potassium channels.

True

How would you test the hypothesis that this neuron is selectively permeable to Ion B+ at rest? What results would support that hypothesis?

You know the membrane is selectively permeable to a given ion at rest if the resting membrane potential (RMP) is equal to the equilibrium potential for that ion. So you can calculate EB+ and measure RMP and compare them - if they are not equal, then you have disproven the hypothesis; if they are equal, you have provided support for the hypothesis (although not proven it, because...). However, if two ions have the same equilibrium potential, then you would need another approach to test whether the resting membrane is permeable to both of those ions or just to one of them. To do this, you would manipulate the concentration gradient of each candidate ion (separately) and measure membrane potential to find out whether or not the membrane is permeable to any of them. Changing the concentration gradient of a given ion will result in a change in the membrane potential only if the membrane is permeable to that ion.

Stimulation of Rod 1 by light will have what effect on Rod 1? Select one: a. It will depolarize Rod 1. b. It will hyperpolarize Rod 1.

Which of the following are true of cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)? Select one or more: a.CSF circulates through the ventricular system and around the structures of the CNS. b.The total volume of CSF in humans is turned over about once every 3-4 weeks. c.CSF is sampled in the procedure known as a lumbar puncture. d.CSF helps maintain the proper extracellular environment within the CNS. e.CSF is found in the subarachnoid space. f.none of the above

a, c, d, e

Figure A shows a typical action potential. Figures B-D show the results of chemically altering the action potential using different agents separately. In each case, the cell is directly stimulated to threshold just 5 msec after the treatment has taken effect (so we are not considering long-term effects), and the membrane potential is recorded. a. If you treat a neuron with Ouabain, which blocks sodium-potassium ion pump function, what would you expect the action potential in that neuron to look like? (1 point) A / B / C / D b. Would application of TEA, a voltage-gated potassium channel antagonist, change the threshold of the action potential? (1 point) YES / NO c. What if you instead treat the neuron with TTX, which blocks voltage-gated sodium channels. Would TTX application change the resting membrane potential? YES / NO

a. A b. No c. No

a. C

A. Which is the most caudal section? A B C B. Which section is part of the cervical enlargement? A B C C. Which section contains the least motor neurons? A B C D. Using figure 'A', draw a circle to indicate the location of both corticospinal tracts. E. Using figure 'B', draw a circle to indicate the location of alpha motor neuron cell bodies. F. Using figure 'C', draw a circle to indicate the location of ascending somatosensory input.

a. C b. B c. A

Below is a drawing of one spinal cord segment. Three neurons (labled A-c) are shown in their appropriate locations. Neuron A forms excitatory synapses onto neuron B, and neuron B forms inhibitory synapses onto neuron C. a. Which cell is a motor neuron? A B C b. Which cell is an interneuron? A B C c. Which cell is a somatosensory receptor neuron? A B C d. Which of these cells could receive inhibitory input from the motor cortex? A / B / C / NONE

a. C b. B c. A d. NONE

We discussed several systems that contribute to the successful production of movements. For the statements below, indicate the most appropriate system a. Plays a critical role in learning coordinated and accurate movements b. Plays a critical role in inhibiting or stimulating motor cortex activity c. Makes a synapse onto lower motor neurons d. Primary output neurons are Pyramidal Neurons e. Primary computational neurons are Purkinje Neurons f. Makes terminals that release acetylcholine onto muscles g. Expresses nicotinic acetylcholine receptors that enable contraction

a. Cerebellum b. Basal Ganglia c. Upper motoneurons d. Primary Motor cortex e. Cerebellum f. Lower motoneurons g. Muscle fibers

You are studying a type of neuron in which the resting membrane potential (RMP) changes with the time of day as described here: RMP = -90 mV in the morning RMP = -80 mV in the afternoon RMP = -70 mV in the evening RMP = -60 mV in the middle of the night Yes, neurons like this actually exist. Now, during each experiment, you apply the same amount of Neurotransmitter Z (NT Z) and measure its effect on membrane potential, getting the following results (in mV): a. Are you recording in? Voltage clamp / Current clamp b. In the middle of the night, does Neurotransmitter Z cause depolarization or hyperpolarization of these neurons? DEPOLARIZATION / HYPERPOLARIZATION c. Which of the following is a better explanation of the reversal potential? A. At the reversal potential, ion channels are closed and ions cannot move across the plasma membrane. B. At the reversal potential channels are open but there is no net movement of ions across the plasma membrane. d. What is the equilibrium potential for the synapse activated by Neurotransmitter Z? -90 mV / -70 mV e. If the threshold for these neurons is at -50 mV, is Neurotransmitter Z excitatory or inhibitory when applied to these neurons? EXCITATORY / INHIBITORY

a. Current clamp b. Hyperpolarization c. B d. -70mV e. Inhibitory

Below are four neurons from a neural circuit (labeled A-D). Neuron A is dopaminergic, and Neuron B expresses D1 receptors on its dendrites and cell body. The synapses formed by Neuron B onto Neuron C have a reversal potential that is depolarized to threshold. Neuron D uses a neuromodulator that causes calcium channels to open (when released onto the terminal of Neuron B). Assume a baseline level of spontaneous activity in Neuron B. a. Is the A-onto-B synapse excitatory or inhibitory? EXCITATORY / INHIBITORY b. Is the B-onto-C synapse excitatory or inhibitory? EXCITATORY / INHIBITORY c. If you depolarize Neuron A, what would be the effect on Neuron C? DEPOLARIZATION / HYPERPOLARIZATION d. If you depolarize Neuron B, what would be the effect on Neuron C? DEPOLARIZATION / HYPERPOLARIZATION e. If you increase extracellular potassium surrounding Neuron D, what would be the effect on Neuron C? DEPOLARIZATION / HYPERPOLARIZATION f. If you apply a sodium ion channel antagonist such as tetrodotoxin onto Neuron C, what would be the effect on Neuron C? ENHANCE ACTION POTENTIALS/ INHIBIT ACTON POTENTIALS g. If you apply a sodium/potassium pump inhibitor onto Neuron C, what would be the short term effect on Neuron C? INHIBIT ACTON POTENTIALS / NO EFFECT

a. Excitatory b. Excitatory c. Depolarization d. Depolarization e. Depolarization f. inhibit action potentials g. no effect

Discuss the primary, most commonly treatment available for Parkinson's Disease motor symptoms a. What is it called? b. How does it work? c. Name one side effect. d. Name one advantage. e. Name one disadvantage. f. Why are two other molecules in the dopaminergic metabolic pathway not used

a. L-DOPA b. L-DOPA is converted into Dopamine in the brain by Dopa-decarboxylase. c. Dyskinesias d. Inexpensive, Oral pill, Restores movement e. Does not treat underlying cause and therefore does not slow progression of disease f. Dopamine cannot be used because it doesn't cross the blood brain barrier. Tyrosine cannot be used because the rate limiting step in the dopamine pathway is tyrosine hydroxylase

Now, lesion the substantia nigra pars compacta. a. What impact will this have in the striatum? b. How will this change the final output of the indirect pathway into motor cortex? c. How will this change the direct pathway into motor cortex? d. Overall, how will the decrease in dopamine change motor function?

a. Lesions of the substantia nigra pars compacta will decrease dopamine release into the striatum. b. The indirect pathway neurons express inhibitory D2 receptors. Thus decreased dopamine release will cause less inhibition of these neurons. This will ultimately decrease excitatory activity from thalamus to the motor cortex, and will generally inhibit motor function and programs. Bonus (+1 point) : It also causes aberrant oscillatory electrical activity, responsible for the tremor. c. Since indirect pathway neurons express excitatory D1 receptors, decreased dopamine release will cause less excitation of these neurons. This will ultimately cause decreased excitatory activity from thalamus to the motor cortex, and will generally inhibit motor function. d. Ultimately, motor function will be inhibited.

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a toxin that acts by blocking voltage-gated sodium channels. If you applied TTX to neurons just long enough for it to take effect, what would you expect to happen to: a. the resting membrane potential? b. action potentials? Explain your answers.

a. No change. Voltage-gated sodium channels are not open at rest, so they do not contribute to the resting membrane potential. b. There would be no action potentials if V-gated sodium channels are blocked. They are normally critical to the rising phase of the action potential, so blocking them would prevent action potentials.

Here is a hypothetical circuit involving three neurons. For each of the following, indicate whether you would expect it to be more likely to have an excitatory or inhibitory effect on Neuron C. Assume that Neuron B is continually firing action potentials (1 point for each question) (circle one)

a. Opening voltage-gated sodium channels on the dendrites of neuron B -> excitatory b. Increased action potential generation in Neuron A -> inhibitory c. Increased extracellular K+ concentration surrounding Neuron B -> excitatory d. The action potential threshold of Neuron B becomes hyperpolarized -> excitatory e. Neuron A is exposed to a voltage-gated calcium channel antagonist. -> excitatory

Damage to each of the following regions of the nervous system results in one of the disorders listed below (A-H). Select the appropriate disorder a. Precentral Gyrus -> ________ b. Postcentral Gyrus -> _______ c. Striatum to globus pallidus projection of the indirect motor loop -> _____ d. Subthalamic nucleus -> ________ e. Premotor area in the cortex -> ______ f. Loss of D1 and D2 dopamine receptors on striatum neurons -> _____ g. Most often induced by long term abuse of alcohol -> _____

a. Paralysis b. Somatosensory Deficits c. Huntington's Disease d. Ballism e. Apraxia f. Parkinson's Disease g. Korsakoff's syndrome

Potassium ions are positively charged. If you flip a switch that opens potassium channels (and only potassium channels): a. what would happen in terms of ion movement across the membrane? Briefly explain why. b. what would happen to the balance of charges across the cell membrane? Briefly explain why.

a. Potassium (K) ions would move through the open K ion channels down their concentration gradient, so they would move from inside to outside the cell. b. Potassium ions carry a positive charge as they move out of the cell, so the cell would become negatively charged (inside relative to outside, by convention).

Match each description to the most appropriate component of the motor system a. receives strong input from prefrontal cortex -> ______________ b. directly innervate(s) skeletal muscles -> ____________ c. include(s) the pyramidal cells of layer V (layer five) -> ___________ d. include(s) the globus pallidus -> _________ e. include(s) neurons with cell bodies in the vestibular nucleus -> ____ f. detect(s) the difference between intended and actual movements and make(s) adjustments to reduce error -> _________ g. output neurons are Purkinje cells -> ____________ h. includes neurons with cell bodies in the red nucleus -> ________

a. basal ganglia b. lower motor neurons c. upper motor neurons d. basal ganglia e. upper motor neurons f. cerebellum g. cerebellum h. upper motor neurons

The hypothalamus can regulated three broad types of responses -- name all three.

a. behavioral responses (somatic) b. ANS responses (visceral) c. endocrine responses (hormonal)

a. sheet-like arrangement (layers) of neuronal cell bodies b. cluster of neuronal cell bodies in the PNS c. location of cell bodies of first-order afferent neurons d. cluster of neuronal cell bodies in the CNS e. on the opposite side of the midline f. bundle of axons in the PNS g. bundle of axons in the CNS h. group of axons that cross the midline

a. cortex b. ganglion c. ganglion d. nucleus e. contralateral f. nerve g. tract h. commissure

The figure to the right shows a schematic of a neuron with three synapse (labeled A, B, and C), and a recording site located on the axon hillock. The resting membrane potential of the neuron is -70 mV, and threshold is -55 mV. a. Following a single stimulation of synaptic input A, you record a 7 mV depolarization at the recording site. What would you hypothesize will occur? action potential / no action potential b. Now consider simultaneous activation of synaptic input s B and C. If synaptic input C allows chloride ion entry and has an equilibrium potential of -65 mV, what would you hypothesize would occur? action potential / no action potential c. Now consider a high frequency stimulation of ONLY synaptic input C. What would you hypothesize will occur? action potential / no action potential

a. no action potential b. no action potential c. no action potential

Match each statement given to the most appropriate structure or component or associated structure of the basal ganglia. a. lesions of this region give rise to violent, involuntary limb movements (ballism) -> _____________________ b. the neurons that make up this projection use dopamine as their neurotransmitter -> ___________________ c. projects to the ventrolateral nucleus of the thalamus -> ___________ d. damage to this projection contribute to the symptoms of Huntington's Disease -> _______________ e. together, the caudate and putamen are known as this -> __________ f. loss of neurons in this area results in Parkinson's Disease -> ________ g. receives direct input from most of the cerebral cortex -> __________

a. subthalamic nucleus b. nigrostriatal c. globus pallidus d. striatopallidal e. striatum f. substantia nigra pars compacta g. striatum

Indicate the cerebral lobe for which it is most appropriate. a. the lateral fissure marks its dorsal border -> b. plays an important role in the control of voluntary movement -> c. located at the most posterior portion of the cerebrum -> d. where Brodmann's Area 17 is located -> e. positioned anterior to the parietal lobe -> f. where the postcentral gyrus is located -> g. where somatotopic maps are found -> h. where Broca's area is located -> I. primary function is processing visual information -> j. damage to part of this lobe can result in paralysis -> k. the central sulcus marks its anterior border -> l. where Wernicke's area is located -> m. receives input from the lateral geniculate nucleus ->

a. temporal lobe b. frontal lobe c. occipital lobe d. occipital lobe e. frontal lobe f. parietal lobe g. parietal lobe h. frontal lobe I. occipital lobe j. frontal lobe k. parietal lobe l. temporal lobe m. occipital lobe

You looked at action potential histograms recorded from animals as they were presented with a conditioned stimulus (or not) followed by a reward (or not). Which nucleus is the most likely site from which these recordings were made? a. raphe nucleus b. ventral tegmental area (VTA) c. locus coeruleus d. basal forebrain complex e. nucleus accumbens (NAc)

Glutamate is a neurotransmitter that is found throughout the central nervous system. Which of the following is true of glutamate receptors? Choose one or more answers. Select one or more: a. None of these answers are true. b. Chloride ions can pass through glutamate receptors to induce presynaptic facilitation c. AMPA and NMDA receptors act together to enable LTP. d. They can be excitatory or inhibitory, supporting the statement that neurotransmitter action is determined by receptor.

c, d

c. A

Above are schematics of spinal cord segments at three different levels of the spinal cord. Which section is part of the cervical enlargement? Select one: a. C b. A c. B

c. B

One cell in this circuit is not labeled -- which type of cell is this? Select one: a. cone cell b. amacrine cell c. horizontal cell

c. Horizontal cell

Match each statement given to the most appropriate structure or component or associated structure of the basal ganglia.

damage to this projection contribute to the symptoms of Huntington's Disease → striatopallidal the neurons that make up this projection use dopamine as their neurotransmitter → nigrostriatal receives direct input from most of the cerebral cortex → striatum loss of neurons in this area results in Parkinson's Disease → substantia nigra pars compacta lesions of this region give rise to violent, involuntary limb movements (ballism) → subthalamic nucleus projects to the ventrolateral nucleus of the thalamus → globus pallidus together, the caudate and putamen are known as this → striatum

Match each description to the most appropriate component of the motor system.

directly innervate(s) skeletal muscles → lower motor neurons include(s) the pyramidal cells of layer V (layer five) → upper motor neurons receives strong input from prefrontal cortex → basal ganglia include(s) the globus pallidus → basal ganglia detect(s) the difference between intended and actual movements and make(s) adjustments to reduce error → cerebellum output neurons are Purkinje cells → cerebellum include(s) neurons with cell bodies in the vestibular nucleus → upper motor neurons includes neurons with cell bodies in the red nucleus → upper motor neurons

Below is a drawing of one spinal cord segment. Three neurons (labled A-c) are shown in their appropriate locations. Neuron A forms excitatory synapses onto neuron B, and neuron B forms inhibitory synapses onto neuron C. e. Circle and label a ventral root. f. Circle and label a dorsal root ganglion g. If Neuron B is excitatory, what effect would activation of neuron A have on Neuron C's target muscle? MORE excitation / LESS excitation h. If a lesion occurs in the region contained by the black square, what effect would this have on a patient? Loss of motor control / Loss of somatosensation (circle one)

e-f picture g. Credit given for both answers h. Loss of motor control

Glutamate is a neurotransmitter that is found throughout the central nervous system. a. Which of the following is true of glutamate receptors? (CIRCLE ALL CORRECT) i. They can be excitatory or inhibitory, supporting the statement that neurotransmitter action is determined by receptor ii. AMPAand NMDA receptors act together to both depolarize and enable plasticity in the presynaptic terminal iii. Can permit calcium entry to both depolarize the neuron and trigger internal signal transduction cascades. iv. Chloride ions can pass through glutamate receptors to induce presynaptic facilitation v. none of the above

i, ii, iii

The diagram to the right represents neurons found within the retina. This information is given to you to use in answering the questions that follow: -the circuit is "Off Center/On Surround" Under which of these circumstances would the retinal ganglion neuron be maximally depolarized? (CIRCLE ONE) (1 points) i. Light in the center, light in the surround ii. Light in the center, no light in the surround iii. No light in the center, light in the surround iv. No light in the center, no light in the surround

iii

For each of the following structures, indicate its developmental origin (i.e., the region from which it develops). the medulla → hindbrain the pons → hindbrain the retina (in the eye) → forebrain the midbrain → mesencephalon the cerebellum → hindbrain the corpus callosum → forebrain the cerebral hemispheres → forebrain Broca's area → forebrain the hippocampus → forebrain the telencephalon and the diencephalon → forebrain

the medulla → hindbrain the pons → hindbrain the retina (in the eye) → forebrain the midbrain → mesencephalon the cerebellum → hindbrain the corpus callosum → forebrain the cerebral hemispheres → forebrain Broca's area → forebrain the hippocampus → forebrain the telencephalon and the diencephalon → forebrain

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