BIOL 4262 Final Study Guide Answers

How has climate change affected Adelie and chinstrap penguins?

1. Ice melts, reducing habitat. 2. Reduced ice leads to decreased diatom growth. 3. Less diatoms means less food for krill larvae. 4. Decreased krill larvae availability impacts penguin food source. Gentoo penguins not affected due to their adaptability and ability to switch to alternative food sources.

What is Menge and Sutherland's model?

A model related to ecological patterns and species interactions.

What is the RSP model?

A model related to ecological patterns and species interactions.

What is the niche model?

A model that assumes communities reach equilibrium, with asymmetric competition.

What is the lottery model?

A model that does not assume equilibrium, relying on chance events for diversity maintenance.

What is Darwin's Model of Atoll Formation?

A model that explains the formation of atolls through subsidence and coral growth.

What is the Island Mass Effect (IME)?

A phenomenon where islands alter flow, capture plankton, and increase nutrient availability on coral reefs.

What is Amensalism?

A relationship where one organism is harmed, and the other is unaffected.

What is Mutualism?

A symbiotic relationship where both organisms benefit.

What are the ideal temperature conditions for corals?

Above 20°C.

List and describe the different types of habitats in the deep sea.

Abyssal plain, mesopelagic zone, hydrothermal vents, cold seeps, whale falls, seamounts, coral mounds, brine lakes.

What ecological functions do all provide?

All provide important ecological functions such as providing habitat, supporting biodiversity, protecting coastlines from erosion, and acting as carbon sinks.

How do Antarctic benthic communities differ from other benthic communities?

Antarctic benthic communities have sponges, bryozoans, hydrozoans, ascidians, brittle stars, seastars, isopods, gastropods, and polychaetes. Shell-cracking predators are absent. Fauna resembles Paleozoic era.

How do the Arctic and Antarctic differ in terms of food webs?

Arctic: phytoplankton (diatoms) base, polar bears and orcas as apex predators. Antarctic: phytoplankton (diatoms) base, krill plays a crucial role, polar bears and orcas still significant.

What are cold seeps?

Areas where methane and other hydrocarbon-rich fluids seep out of the seafloor.

How does reduced food availability affect the krill population?

Causes a decline in krill population.

What is the base of the food web at hydrothermal vents?

Chemosynthetic bacteria.

What type of water do corals thrive in?

Clear water with low nutrients.

What are the major threats to coral reefs?

Climate change (temperature and bleaching, ocean acidification), fertilizer runoff, invasive species (e.g., lionfish), overfishing, reaching a tipping point.

What occurs in the sulfophilic stage of whale fall succession?

Colonization by organisms that rely on sulfur compounds.

What occurs in the enrichment opportunist stage of whale fall succession?

Colonization by organisms that take advantage of the nutrient-rich environment.

How could you design experiments to address the attraction vs. production debate in artificial reefs?

Compare fish abundance and productivity in areas with and without artificial reefs. Monitor larval supply, habitat use, and overall fish abundance.

What does Hermatypic refer to?

Corals that contribute to reef-building.

What evidence supports the formation of atolls?

Cores revealing underlying volcanic rock.

What are cold seeps?

Deep-sea ecosystems based on chemosynthesis, involving methane seeping from the seabed.

What are whale falls?

Deep-sea ecosystems based on chemosynthesis, relying on nutrients from decomposing whale carcasses.

What are hydrothermal vents?

Deep-sea ecosystems based on chemosynthesis, with water heated by the Earth's crust.

What ecological functions do mangroves, salt marshes, kelps, and seagrasses provide?

Habitat, nursery areas, and detrital-based food chains.

What are the roles of predation and disturbance in shaping coral reefs?

Important roles, complex food webs, equivocal trophic cascades.

Where is coral diversity greater?

In the Pacific than the Atlantic.

What are top-down factors in polar community regulation?

Influence of predators on lower trophic levels.

What occurs in the scavenger stage of whale fall succession?

Initial colonization by scavengers.

How does space availability affect benthos in polar communities?

It can be limiting depending on the substrate.

What role does nutrient availability play in polar communities?

It influences primary productivity and the entire food web.

What is the significance of ice scour in shaping polar communities?

It is a significant disturbance that impacts succession.

Where are kelp forests located and why are they located in those habitats?

Kelp forests are located in temperate regions with hard bottoms, particularly in shallow, clear, and nutrient-rich waters. They thrive in areas with sufficient light penetration to the bottom, such as those near upwellings.

Explain the ecological services provided by kelp forests.

Kelp forests provide various ecological services, acting as 'foundation' species. They serve as habitat and structure, acting as nurseries for fish. Kelp forests support a detrital-based food chain for many invertebrates, fish, and mammals. They also export detritus to surrounding waters.

Where is coral growth better on an atoll?

Leeward side.

What is the maximum depth at which corals thrive?

Less than 25 meters.

How does the slow decomposition rates in the deep sea affect the abundance of carnivores?

Limited availability of nutrients may explain the reduced abundance of carnivores.

Why are nutrients in low abundance in the deep sea?

Low input of organic matter from above.

How do they differ ecologically?

Mangroves and salt marshes are primarily terrestrial ecosystems, while kelps and seagrasses are marine ecosystems. Mangroves and salt marshes are dominated by trees and grasses, respectively, while kelps and seagrasses are dominated by algae and flowering plants, respectively.

In what climate, substrate would you expect to find each?

Mangroves are found in tropical and subtropical regions with muddy or sandy substrates. Salt marshes are found in temperate regions with muddy or sandy substrates. Kelps are found in temperate regions with hard bottoms. Seagrasses are found in shallow marine environments with sandy or muddy substrates.

Differentiate between mangroves, salt marshes, kelps, and seagrasses.

Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees found in tropical and subtropical regions, while salt marshes are grassy wetlands found in temperate regions. Kelps are large brown algae found in temperate regions with hard bottoms, and seagrasses are flowering plants found in shallow marine environments.

How do mangroves, salt marshes, kelps, and seagrasses differ in terms of substrate and climate?

Mangroves: tropical coastal areas with muddy substrates. Salt marshes: temperate regions with marshy substrates. Kelps: temperate regions with hard bottoms. Seagrasses: shallow, sandy substrates.

What are coral mounds?

Mounds of coral that form in deep water.

How does reduced ice cover affect penguins?

Reduces availability of ice as a platform for penguins.

What is the impact of reduced ice on diatoms and krill?

Results in fewer diatoms being trapped, leading to decreased food availability for krill larvae.

How are rocky intertidal and rocky subtidal different?

Rocky intertidal is in the intertidal zone, while rocky subtidal is below the intertidal zone.

What are the major stages of whale fall succession?

Scavenger stage, enrichment opportunist stage, sulfophilic stage, and reef stage.

What is the primary source of organic matter in the deep sea?

Sinking of dead organisms and detritus from the surface.

Explain succession on hydrothermal vents.

The colonization and replacement of species over time.

How does freezing ice preserve nutrients for the next spring?

Freezing ice traps phytoplankton, serving as a nutrient storage mechanism. Nutrients are released during spring melt, boosting ecosystem productivity.

How do corals obtain nutrition?

From symbiotic zooxanthellae, which provide them with calories through photosynthesis.

What are seamounts?

Underwater mountains that rise from the seafloor.

Do PBDEs and PCBs biomagnify?

Yes, they tend to increase in concentration as they move up the food chain.

Explain zonation in kelp forests.

Zonation in kelp forests is largely driven by depth. Giant kelps, such as Macrocystis, dominate in areas with weak wave action and shallow enough water for light penetration. In deeper waters, where waves are stronger, other kelp species like Laminaria and Egregia become dominant.

Explain threats to kelp forests.

Threats to kelp forests include trawling on hard bottoms, where trawls can disturb or kill benthic animals. Many species within kelp communities are slow growers and slow to recover, making them vulnerable to such disturbances.

How do PBDEs and PCBs concentrate in polar regions?

Through a process called global distillation, where they evaporate from lower latitudes and are carried to polar regions through air currents.

What factors regulate polar communities?

Top-down and bottom-up factors.

What occurs in the reef stage of whale fall succession?

Formation of a complex ecosystem resembling a coral reef.

Why are corals susceptible to climate change?

Factors like temperature stress, ocean acidification, and associated coral bleaching.

Explain the zonation patterns found at hydrothermal vents.

Based on temperature and flow, with different species dominating in different conditions.

How are rocky intertidal and rocky subtidal similar?

Both have hard bottoms.

How are bottom-up factors influenced in polar communities?

By processes like ice formation and melt.

Why are high rates of competitive exclusion not common on coral reefs?

Due to factors like intermediate disturbance, keystone predators, facilitation, high niche partitioning, and competitive networks.

Why are coral reefs highly productive despite low nutrient supply?

Due to factors like the Island Mass Effect (IME), where islands alter flow, capture plankton, and increase nutrient availability.

What factors contribute to coral reef diversity?

Facilitation, niche partitioning, competitive networks, and the presence of various niches.

What influences the zonation patterns in rocky subtidal?

Factors like light availability and slope.

Are competitive monopolies common in polar communities?

No, they are not as common.

Does the rocky subtidal follow the RSP?

Not explicitly mentioned.

Do polar communities follow the rocky shore paradigm?

Not specified in the notes.

What is the rocky shore paradigm?

Not specified in the notes.

What are bottom-up factors in polar community regulation?

Nutrient availability.

What is a hydrothermal vent and where are they found?

Openings in the ocean floor where heated water emerges, found on tectonic plate boundaries.

What is Scleractinia?

Order of hard corals responsible for building coral reefs.

Which animal serves as a sentinel of global health due to high levels of PBDEs and PCBs?

Polar bears accumulate high levels of these contaminants.

Give an example of a top-down factor in polar community regulation.

Predation by orcas and polar bears.

What is the RSP and why is it not commonly found on coral reefs?

RSP (competitive exclusion) is not common due to intermediate disturbance, keystone predators, facilitation, high niche partitioning, and competitive networks.

How do the RSP model and Menge and Sutherland's model relate to deep-sea communities?

Specific details on their application to deep-sea communities are not provided.

What is the Sulfophilic stage?

Stage where chemoautotrophic bacteria and organisms that prey on them are present.

What is the Opportunist stage?

Stage where polychaetes and crustaceans are attracted to rich sediments.

What is Coral Bleaching?

Stress-induced expulsion of symbiotic algae, leading to a loss of color and potential coral death.

What is coral bleaching?

Stress-induced expulsion of symbiotic algae, loss of color, potential coral death.

What kind of hierarchies are found in Arctic benthos?

Strong hierarchies.

What is the proposed formation process of atolls?

Subsidence of volcanic islands leaving a ring-shaped reef.

What are Zooxanthellae?

Symbiotic algae that live within coral tissues and provide nutrients through photosynthesis.

What causes the zonation patterns at hydrothermal vents?

Temperature and flow conditions.

What influences the structure of polar communities?

The absence of a temperature refuge and physical barriers.

What is the aphotic zone?

The portion of the ocean where sunlight does not penetrate.

How can the interaction between sea otters, sea urchins, and kelp in kelp forests be related to Menge and Sutherland's Consumer Stress Model?

The presence of sea otters disrupts the potential dominance of sea urchins, preventing stress on kelp populations.

What is whale fall succession?

The process of colonization and decomposition of a whale carcass.

Explain the trophic cascade in kelp forests.

The trophic cascade in kelp forests involves sea otters influencing kelp numbers indirectly. Sea otters do not eat kelp but control sea urchin populations, preventing overgrazing on kelp. This four-level trophic cascade results in lush kelp in the presence of sea otters and rare kelp in their absence.

What is the mesopelagic zone?

The twilight zone of the ocean, where some light penetrates but not enough for photosynthesis.

How are whale falls, cold seeps, and hydrothermal vents similar?

They are all deep-sea ecosystems based on chemosynthesis.

What effects do PBDEs and PCBs have on animals in polar regions?

They can disrupt endocrine systems, cause reproductive issues, and impact overall health.

What is the impact of changes in bottom-up factors in polar communities?

They can have cascading effects throughout the ecosystem.

How are gentoo penguins less affected by reduced krill availability?

They have a more generalist diet, allowing them to adapt to changes in prey availability.

How do adelie and chinstrap penguins rely on krill?

They heavily rely on krill as a food source.

Where are corals found?

Warm, shallow, clear, and nutrient-poor waters.

What factors influence atoll zonation?

Wave energy, light, and suspended sediment.

How are whale falls, cold seeps, and hydrothermal vents different?

Whale falls rely on decomposing whale carcasses, cold seeps involve methane seeping, and hydrothermal vents have heated water.

What is the attraction vs. production debate in the context of artificial reefs?

Whether artificial reefs increase fish abundance (production argument) or simply attract fish from natural habitats (attraction argument).

What is the key question in the attraction vs. production debate?

Whether artificial reefs primarily enhance production or attract fish without increasing total numbers.