Biology 2 Study Guide
What is resource partitioning?
Ways in which species differ in their use of resources.
What do vertebrates and tunicates share in common?
a notochord and a dorsal, hollow nerve cord
How are stomach cells moderately well adapted to their acidity and protein-digesting activities?
a thick, mucous secretion and active mitosis of epithelial cells
Against which hard structure do the circular and longitudinal muscles of annelids work?
hydrostatic skeleton
Compare and contrast how fluid bathes cells in open and closed circulatory systems.
*****Both have circulatory fluid, set of interconnecting vessels, a muscular pump. systems are decided upon by activity levels and energy demands Hemolymph- In invertebrates with an open circulatory system, the body fluid that bathes tissues. Hemocoel- a blood cavity within the bodies of certain invertebrates in which blood bathes tissues directly; part of an open circulatory system
Which cells of the nervous system transmit nervous system messages?
****neuron- a specialized cell of the nervous system that transmits messages
How do introduced species have deleterious effects on biological communities?
-preying on native species. -competing with native species for food or light. -displacing native species. -competing with native species for space or breeding/nesting habitat.
Explain the path of blood flow in mammals and birds.
- 4-chambered hearts with same function (left and right) BLOOD FLOW: lungs (oxygenated) --> left side of heart (oxygenated) --> systemic tissues --> right side of heart (deoxygenated) --> lungs (deoxygenated)
Describe the characteristics and life history strategies of animals that exhibit each type of survivorship curve shown in the graph below. Be sure to compare and contrast r-selected versus K-selected species.
- Type I: characterized by high age-specific survival probability in early and middle life, followed by a rapid decline in survival in later life. They are typical of species that produce few offspring but care for them well, including humans and many other large mammals. - Type II: intermediate between Types I and III, where roughly constant mortality rate/survival probability is experienced regardless of age. Some birds and some lizards follow this pattern. - In Type III: the greatest mortality (lowest age-specific survival) is experienced early in life, with relatively low rates of death (high probability of survival) for those surviving this bottleneck. This type of curve is characteristic of species that produce a large number of offspring (see r/K selection theory). This includes most marine invertebrates R-selected-exhibit rapid growth Species that invade a habitat, quickly reproduce, and then die opportunistic grasses and many insects K-selected-Population size remains relatively constant (at the carrying capacity) produce a small number of relatively large offspring that require extensive parental care until they mature
Review the evolutionary concepts discussed earlier in this course (see Study Guide 1).
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Describe the structure of epithelial tissue.
-Layer of tightly connected cells with no extracellular elements in between -Specialized contacts between adjacent cells for communication -Apical surface faces internal or external space and is not adhesive -Basal surface adjoins underlying connective tissue
What are the common characteristics of all chordates at some point during their life cycle?
-Notochord -Dorsal, hollow nerve cord -Pharyngeal slits or clefts -Muscular, post-anal tail
Describe connective tissue and its general structure.
-binds structures together -provides support and protection -makes a framework -fills space -stores energy (fat) -produces blood cells -helps repair tissue damage some are fluid, some semi-solid, or made of fibers
Describe the key characteristics of Chordata.
1. Hollow dorsal nerve cord 2. Post anal tail 3. Pharyngeal gill slits/pouches 4. Notochord
Explain how an action potential is propagated along an axon, and *****what happens with the electric potential on each side of the membrane along the way.
1. an action potential is generated as sodium ions flows inward across the membrane at one location 2. The depolarization of the action potential spreads to the neighboring region of the membrane, reinitiating the action potential there. To the left of this region the membrane is repolarizing as K+ flows outwards. 3. The depolarization-repolarization process is repeated in the next region of the membrane. In this way, local currents of ions across the plasma membrane cause the action potential to be propagated along the length of the axon.
Which environmental factors probably helped early plants to successfully colonize land?
1. the relative number of potential predators (herbivores) 2. the relative number of competitors 3. the relative availability of symbiotic partners
What advantages does endothermy have for animals?
Advantage: move around easily during the cold night/weather enzymes are always optimal due to narrow temperature range metabolic processes always working at optimum always active e.g. able to escape predation and catch food -Active for longer -Not as weather/climate dependent
Define the terms anatomy and physiology.
Anatomy: The branch of science that studies the structure of the body. (The study of internal and external structures of the body) Physiology: The branch of science that describes how the body functions. ( The study of how living organisms perform their vital functions)
What characteristics of Domain Archaea separates it from the other groups?
Archaea: Extreme halophiles, hyperthermophiles, methanogens Don't contain a nuclei They carry out unusual metabolic processes. They contain distinctive ribosomal RNA. They live in extreme environments.
Describe the flow of air into the lung of a mammal.
At rest (not exercising) air flows into the lungs of mammals during inhalation because the diaphragm contracts and increases the volume of the lungs while also lowering pressure
What are the key characteristics of arthropods?
Bilateral symmetry Exoskeleton of chitin Segmented bodies Appendages modified for feeding Hemocoel No Cilia Ventral nerve cord, dorsal brain
What is the evidence that some middle ear bones of mammals are homologous to certain reptilian jawbones?
Biologists found that as a baby mammal grows in its mother's womb, two bones in the skull become ear bones. However, as a baby lizard develops in its egg, the same two bones become part of the jaw! This is strong evidence that these mammal ear bones are homologous to jaw bones in lizards! These bones can be observed to move from the evolving jaw to the evolving middle ear in mammalian embryos.
Why is blood considered to be connective tissue?
Blood is considered a connective tissue for two basic reasons: (1) embryologically, it has the same origin (mesodermal) as do the other connective tissue types and (2) blood connects the body systems together bringing the needed oxygen, nutrients, hormones and other signaling molecules, and removing the wastes. 1.It connects various body parts with each other. 2.Forms packing around various body organs so called as packing tissue. 3.It is mesodermal in origin. 4.It has all the three components of a connective tissue i.e. cells, fibers and matrix. 5.Fibroblast is the most important cell of connective tissues which is present in blood.
Describe negative feedback mechanisms to regulate body temperature.
Change in temperature is detected by the skin and hypothalamus. Information is sent to the control center in the brain. Thermoregulatory center in the brain receives the info. Thermoregulatory center sends the info to effectors. Sweat glands increase their secretions and BV's dilate. There is an increase in heat loss and the body temperature drops Normal body temperature disturbed (I guess it could be the first step but hey, it's a loop)
Which body systems are involved in bringing nutrients into the body and to cells?
Digestion (breaking down food so that it's in the simplest form so it can be absorbed by the body) and circulatory (transporting nutrients from digestion & oxygen throughout the body to maintain homeostasis.)
What mechanisms exist for animals to digest large macromolecules?
Digestive enzymes are needed to accelerate the breakdown of large macromolecules via catalysis of spontaneous or non-spontaneous reactions.
Explain which layer, endoderm, mesoderm, or ectoderm, nervous, muscular, stomach, and skin develop from.
Endoderm • Epithelial lining of digestive tract Mesoderm • Muscular system • Muscular layer of stomach, intestine, etc. • Dermis of skin Ectoderm • Epidermis of skin and its derivatives (including sweat glands, hair follicles) • Nervous system
What is adipose tissue?
Fat tissue, located below the reticular layer of the skin (is a specialized highly vascular tissue)
Compare and contrast the respiratory systems in fish and mammals.
Fish: Have the ability to move to constantly have water (respiratory medium) passing over their gills (respiratory surface) Advantages - simplist mode of respiration is through diffusion Disadvantages - low solubility of O2 in water, - temperature and salinity dependant - metabolic consumption of 02 depletes it from the immediate surrounding water Mammals: air--Oxygen easy to obtain but respiratory surfaces have difficulty remaining moist which is vital. Tracheal systems operate off diffusion of gases from area of high concentration to low concentration. Openings are limited in size to outside world to cut down on moisture loss. Respiratory surfaces must remain moist in order for gas exchange to take place efficiently. NEGATIVE PRESSURE BREATHING works like a suction pump pulling air, instead of pushing it, into the lungs (mammals) POSITIVE PRESSURE BREATHING forces air down the trachea (amphibian) DURING INHALATION, contraction of rib cage causes it to expand while diaphragm contracts and descends --lungs expand and pressure inside them is lowered --air pressure now lower than in atmosphere --air rushes into nostrils and down breathing tubes DURING EXHALATION, rib muscles and diaphragm relax --lung volume is decreased and pressure inside them > --air forced out of lungs
How are fungi important in human society?
Fungi can play an important ecological role in the ecosystem by decomposing organic matter and breaking down and absorbing minerals from rocks and soil. Their main role is when they decompose dead organisms. They are a part select few that can break down wood. In the process, nutrients are released that other organisms can use. Without fungi, this would not be possible. They slowly break down rocks and prepare environments for other organisms (lichens). Also, they have the ability to absorb minerals from soil, which are transferred to plant roots (mycorrhizae). Most plants (almost all) have mycorrhizae. Some depend upon mycorrhizae. We depend on their ecological services as decomposers and recyclers of organic matter. Without mycorrhizae, our agriculture would be far less productive. Mushrooms are a popular food, but they are not the only fungi we eat. Humans have used yeasts to produce alcoholic beverages and raise bread for thousands of years. Many fungi have great medical value as well. Fungi also figure prominently in research in molecular biology and biotechnology. Genetically modified fungi hold much promise.
How did the evolution of the jaw contribute to diversification of early vertebrate lineages?
It made additional food sources available
Which chamber of the heart is connected to the aorta?
Left ventricle- The left lower chamber of the heart that receives blood from the left atrium and pumps it out under high pressure through the aorta to the body.
Compare and contrast endotherms and ectotherms for how they maintain homeostasis of body temperature.
Maintaining stable internal conditions, like temperature, either internally, or with the help of external environmental factors. Ex: endotherms like mammals generally stay warm when they have obtained enough energy (food) an ectotherm like a lizard stays warm by laying on a rock in the sun, and cools off by hiding in a shady area.
Describe the characteristics of Porifera.
Marine No nerves, CNS, muscles, mouth, or organs All are sessile filter feeders 2 layers of tissue Have a dormant gemmule structure for part of the year Sometimes undergo tissue regression when conditions are unfavorable then regenerate the tissues later Spongocoel
Explain the relationship between cephalization and the evolution of the coelom in animals.
Separation of tissue layers with the evolution of the coelum enables greater efficiency of gas and nutrient exchange, and the evolution of the head enables the organism to better locate food or hide from predators, ultimately enabling greater consumption of nurtrients (requiring the evolution of the coelum to process all those additional nuritents).
What are homologous structures?
Structures that are similar in different species of common ancestry
What is believed to be the most significant result of the evolution of the amniotic egg?
Tetrapods were no longer tied to the water for reproduction.
What is biodiversity?
The amount of biological or living diversity per unit area. It includes the concepts of species diversity, habitat diversity and genetic diversity. The number of species within a specific habitat.
What is homeostasis?
The body's ability to physiologically regulate its inner environment to ensure its stability in response to fluctuations in the outside environment. The mechanisms involved in the maintenance of a stable, internal environment.
What is the function of the rugae of the stomach?
The function of the rugae is to allow the stomach, or other tissue, to expand when needed. When the stomach is not full, the rugae are folds in the tissue. However, as the stomach fills it expands by unfolding the rugae.
What is the biological species based on?
The potential to interbreed rather than on physical similarity
What do fungi and arthropods have in common?
The protective coats of both groups are made of chitin.
Explain the relationship between surface area to volume ratio and body shape in animals.What is the relationship between size of organism and the surface area : volume ratio?
The smaller the organism, the larger the surface area : volume ratio
What feeding tactic do comb jellies use?
Their feeding strategy is predatory and involves adhesives or mucus on their tentacles or other body parts. They use a suspension feeder feeding tactic.
Describe the life cycle of Basidiomycota.
[Haploid] Basidiomycetes have haploid mycelia that absorb nutrients [Heterokaryotic] Two hyphae of different mating types can undergo plasmogamy, forming a heterokaryotic cell that produces a dikaryotic mycelium[Heterokaryotic] Dikaryotic hyphae produce multicellular fruiting bodies (mushrooms), within which some dikaryotic cells differentiate into basidia [Diploid] With each basidium, the two haploid nuclei fuse (karyogamy) to form a diploid nucleus [Haploid] This cell undergoes meiosis to produce 4 haploid spores [Haploid] After each dispersal, each spore can germinate to produce a new mycelium Life cycle-Plasmogamy -> {Fruiting body (Dikaryotic)} -> Karyogamy -> Meiosis -> Dispersal and Germination
What is a mycelium?
a cluster of interwoven mass of hyphae. aids the fungus in eating and reproduction
Which characteristic do sponges, cnidarians, and flatworms all lack that found in most other animal groups?
a coelom
Define the term tissue.
a group of biological cells that perform a similar function
What is a population?
a group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area
What are the advantages of a complete digestive system over a gastrovascular cavity?
allows for specialized regions with specialized functions; The food comes in one end and moves in that direction until it exits. Our digestive system can hold way more food this way, allowing us to extract more nutrients. The second advantage of a complete digestive tract is its efficient absorption of nutrients.
What is the adaptive advantage associated with the filamentous nature of fungal mycelia?
an extensive surface area well suited for invasive growth and absorptive nutrition
What evolutionary adaptations would help some animals directly exchange matter between the cells of their body and the environment
an external respiratory surface, a small body size, and a two-cell-layered body.
What is the name of the epithelial cell surface that faces the outside of an organ?
apical surface
Explain what adaptations animals have acquired as their bodies evolved increased size and complexity.
as animals evolve larger and more complex bodies, some of the trends that evolved with that are: evolution towards a true coelom (and also a separate mouth and anus) evolution of sensory structures being concentrated in a "head" (cephalization) evolution towards compartmentalization of tissues for specific tasks (for example, long folded intestine to allow for more nutrient absorption, two-circuit, 4 chambered heart for increased gas exchange and nutrient circulation, more complex respiratory systems for gas exchange, more advanced limbs for locomotion, better eye sight and other sensory organs, more complex muscular and skeletal systems, etc.)
How have animal respiratory and digestive systems evolved as animals evolved larger body sizes?
as animals evolve larger and more complex bodies, some of the trends that evolved with that are: evolution towards a true coelum (and also a separate mouth and anus) evolution of sensory structures being concentrated in a "head" (cephalization) as animals evolve larger and more complex bodies, some of the trends that evolved with that are: evolution towards a true coelum (and also a separate mouth and anus) evolution of sensory structures being concentrated in a "head" (cephalization) evolution towards compartmentalization of tissues for specific tasks (for example, long folded intestine to allow for more nutrient absorption, two-circuit, 4 chambered heart for increased gas exchange and nutrient circulation, more complex respiratory systems for gas exchange, more advanced limbs for locomotion, better eye sight and other sensory organs, more complex muscular and skeletal systems, etc.)
What combination of environmental and morphological change is similar in the evolution of both fungi and plants?
colonization of land and loss of flagellated cells
Which groups are the major decomposers of the earth?
bacteria and fungi
Describe the structures of Basidiomycota.
basidium club-shaped reproductive structures. make basidiospores basidiocarp fruiting body or mushroom basidiospores Spores produced in the basidia of basidiomycetes during sexual reproduction mushroom cap Phylum Basidiomycota; emerges from the soil, houses the gills mushroom gills thin vertical plates found underneath mushroom. hold basidia fairy ring circles of mushrooms
What is bilateral symmetry?
can be divided along only one plane of their body to produce two mirror images
What is the advantage of the gut having such a large surface area?
directly facilitates absorption
List the order of the Linnean classification system of life.
domain-kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-species
Which body system coordinates vertebrate body functions via chemical signals?
endocrine system
What type of tissue are the exchange surfaces of multicellular animals lined with?
epithelial tissue
How do fish maintain homeostasis?
excrete large quantities of water (freshwater fish) salt water fish excrete concentrated liquid waste
What is most likely to have been the last common ancestor of all?
flagellated protist
Which clade uses a radula to saw into its prey?
gastropods
What features of the fossil record suggest that during the Cambrian explosion, there was a rise of predator-prey relationships?
increased incidence of hard parts in the fossil record
Are most animals vertebrates or invertebrates?
invertebrates
Describe the characteristics of cardiac muscle cells.
involuntary and intrinsically controlled, striated, branched, and single nucleated. Small Single nucleus Short, wide T-Tubules, no triads SR with no terminal cisternae Aerobic - requires oxygen Have intercalated discs
What are the accessory organs of the digestive system?
liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and salivary glands
What is the main evolutionary advantage of sexual reproduction?
more variation among offspring
What are the main functions of each organ of the digestive system?
mouth-place where food is ground mechanically into small pieces esophagus- muscular tube that serves as a passageway for food stomach- turns food into chyme pancreas- produces substances that stop stomach acid action and enzymes that break down organic nutrients small intestine- major portion of all digestion takes place here liver- produces bile gallbladder- stores bile large intestine- absorbs water from undigested food anus- controls the release of solid waste
Compare and contrast mutualisms, parasitism, and commensalisms.
mutualism a symbiotic relationship where both partners benefit commensalism symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits and the other is unaffected parasitism symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits by obtaining nutrients at the expense of the other partner
Why do planarians lack dedicated respiratory and circulatory systems?
none of their cells are far removed from the gastrovascular cavity or from the external environment
What is chime?
semifluid paste of food particles and gastric juice formed in the stomach (a mixture of partially digested food, water, and gastric juices)
What type of epithelium (cell type and layer type) is characteristic in organisms that have passive diffusion of materials from one fluid to another?
simple squamous epithelium
Which type of epithelium has the shortest diffusion distance?
simple squamous epithelium.
Compare and contrast the types of muscle tissue.
skeletal -cells are long cylinders with many peripheral nuclei -visible light and dark banding= striations -voluntary, conscious control cardiac -cells are branched cylinders with a single central nuclei -involuntary and striated -communicate with each other by intercalated discs smooth -spindle sharped cells with a single central nuclei -walls of hollow organs -involuntary and nonstriated
Which type of muscle is involved in peristalsis in the intestine?
smooth
What is peristalsis, and what type of muscle controls it?
smooth muscle; wave contractions that move food in one direction along the GI tract
Which organ is central to the body's metabolism of nutrients?
the liver
Define carrying capacity (K) and identify where it would be located on the graph above.
the maximum population of a given species that a particular habitat can sustain indefinitely without degrading the habitat
What is the term for the point of connection between two communicating neurons?
the synapse.
What is the most ancient branch point in animal phylogeny?
true tissues or no tissues.
For fungi that produce mushrooms, where is the majority of the organism located?
underground
Describe the key characteristics of animals and the features that are unique to them.
•multicellular ◦made up of many cells ◦specialized cells work together ◦no cell walls ◦can move at one point in their life