Biology Final

one-way ventilation

the old and new air never mix because they never come in contact with each other, it has lungs and two air sacs, separate air capillaries deliver oxygen to the cells

Zones of aquatic ecosystems

vertically: pelagic zone: made up by both the photic and aphotic zones photic zone: where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis aphotic zone: where little light penetrates benthic zone: at the bottom of the zones, deep or shallow, is the benthic zone, which consists of organic and inorganic sediments and is occupied by communities of organisms called the benthos horizontally: littoral zone: waters close to shore that are shallow enough for rooted plants limnetic zone: waters farther from shore that are too deep to support plants with roots

Role of ETC in photosynthesis and cellular respiration

Cellular Respiration Extracts energy from NADH & FADH2 Passes electrons from higher to lower energy states Produces 32 or 34 molecules of ATP Photosynthesis Consists of cytochrome complexes and plastoquinone Carries electrons between PS II and PS I Also pumps H+ from the stroma into the thylakoid space

male plant parts

Stamens are male portion of flower Anther- Saclike container Filament- Slender stalk

Resting Potential

The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane

light-dependent reactions

reactions of photosynthesis that use energy from light to produce ATP and NADPH

Types of Neurons

sensory, motor, interneurons

types of muscle tissue

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

Sliding Filament Model

states that the thick and thin filaments slide past each other so that their degree of overlap increases.

5 plant hormones

1) auxin - promotes growth & cell elongation, also allows for flowering 2) cytokinins - cell division 3) gibberellins - allows for cell division AND cell elongation 4) ethylene - promotes ripening 5) abscisic acid - inhibition of cell growth

Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium

A population where alleles don't change over time is said to be in genetic equilibrium Deviations from a Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium indicate that evolution has occurred Analysis of allele changes in populations over time determines the extent to which evolution has occurred

tidal ventilation mechanism

Air moves in and out by the same route

Invertebrates

All animals have a number of common features Heterotrophs, that must ingest food, and digest internally Cells lack cell walls Generally mobile Coordinated movement using nerves and muscles Reproduce sexually Invertebrates Don't have a backbone Vertebrates Have a spinal cord or backbone at some stage of their life running down the center of their back Most likely descended from an ancestral flagellate colony, where cells took specialized roles The wide diversity in body plans, but most members have varying developmental plans controlled by Hox gene family

nurture conditionings

Associative Learning Any change in behavior that insoles an association between two events Classical conditioning The paired presentation of two different types of stimuli causes an animal to form an association between them Ex: Pavlov- dogs salivate when presented with food Operant Conditions Gradual strengthening of stimulus-response connections Trick-training with pets

Reactants and products of photosynthesis and importance

During photosynthesis, light energy converts carbon dioxide and water (the reactants) into glucose and oxygen (the products).

Energy flow through an ecosystem

Energy flows in one way, not a cycle. Energy flows through an ecosystem via photosynthesis. As organic nutrients pass from one level of the ecosystem to the next, only a portion of the energy is transferred; The vast majority is lost as heat energy. Normally only ~ 10% energy makes it to the next level. The energy flow follows the law of thermodynamics. If energy flow was a cycle, then no energy would be lost along the way. Energy is transformed during photosynthesis from solar energy to chemical energy. Energy is stored through carbohydrates. Trophic levels is the level of nutrients within a food chain. The ecological pyramid is a diagram showing energy losses between trophic levels. Normally only ~ 10% energy makes it to the next level. Biomass decreases from each trophic level as biomass is the number of organisms at each level, multiplied by their weight.

Storage of energy in bonds

Energy is transformed during photosynthesis from solar energy to chemical energy. Energy is stored through carbohydrates.

Evidence for evolution

Fossil Evidence First evidence for evolution Fossils: remains and traces of past life or any other direct evidence of past life such as trails, footprints, or preserved droppings Fossils record the history of life from the past Document succession of life forms from the simple to the more complex Sometimes the fossil record is complete enough to show descent from an ancestor Transitional fossils are a common ancestor for two different groups of organisms They allow us to trace the descent of organism Biogeographical Evidence Biogeography is the study of the range and distribution of plants and animals throughout the world. Biogeographical distributions are consistent with the hypothesis related forms of life evolved in one locale and then spread accessible regions A different mix of plants and animals would be expected whenever geography separates continents, islands, seas, etc. Anatomical Evidence Vertebrate forelimbs: Homologous structures - all contain the same sets of organized bones in similar ways Yet they are modified extensively to meet various adaptive needs Darwin interpreted this as support for a hypothesis of common descent Embryological development All vertebrate embryos have: A postanal tail and paired pharyngeal (gill) pouches Biochemical Evidence All living organisms: Use the same basic biochemical molecules Utilize same DNA triplet code Utilize same 20 amino acids DNA base-sequence differences: When very similar, suggest recent common descent When more different, suggest more ancient common descent Evidence from Developmental Biology Many developmental genes are shared in common between species Much diversity comes from when these regulatory genes that control the activity of other genes are activated Ex: Hox Genes

stages of cellular respiration

Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate Occurs in the cytoplasm ATP is formed Doesn't utilize oxygen (anaerobic) If no oxygen present after pyruvate, undergoes fermentation instead of moving into mitochondria Preparatory (prep) reaction Both pyruvates are oxidized and enter the mitochondria Electron energy is stored in NADH Two carbons are released as CO2 (one from each pyruvate) Citric Acid Cycle Occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion and produces NADH and FADH2 In series of reactions, it releases 4 carbons as CO2 Turns twice per glucose molecule Produces 2 immediate ATP molecules per glucose molecule Electron transport chain (ETC) Extracts energy from NADH & FADH2 Passes electrons from higher to lower energy states Produces 32 or 34 molecules of ATP

vertebrates

Have same 4 characteristics as non-vertebrates as embryos, but all share other characteristics Vertebral column- replaces the notochord Skull - contains brain and houses other sensory features Endoskeleton - living tissue that grows with the organism, protects organs, anchor for muscles Internal organ- large coelom and complete digestive tract, closed circulatory system, respiratory system

Sources of energy in cellular respiration - Generating ATP

If O2 is not available to the cell, fermentation, an anaerobic process, occurs in the cytoplasm During fermentation, glucose is incompletely metabolized to lactate, or to CO2 and alcohol (depending on the organism) If O2 is available to the cell, pyruvate enters the mitochondria for aerobic respiration Fermentation is an anaerobic process that reduces pyruvate to either lactate or alcohol and CO2 Efficiency of Fermentation Two ATP produced per glucose of molecule during fermentation is equivalent to 14.6 kcal Complete oxidation of glucose can yiled 686 kcal Only 2 ATP per glucose are produced, compared to 36 or 38 ATP molecules produced by cellular respiration Energy Harvesting Step: Oxidation of G3P occurs by removal of electrons and hydrogen ions Two electrons and one hydrogen ion are accepted by NAD+ in two NADH Four ATP are produced by substrate-level phosphorylation Net gain of two ATP (4 ATP -ATP) Both G3Ps converted to pyruvates Net yield per glucose: From glycolysis - 2 ATP From citric acid cycle - 2 ATP From electron transport chain 32 to 34 ATP will differ based on how NADH & FADH2 arrive at ETC

speciation

Splitting of one species into 2 or more new species

Different plant strategies for photosynthesis

In hot, dry climates Stomata must close to avoid wilting CO2 decreases and O2 increases O2 starts combining with RuBP, leading to the production of CO2 This is called photorespiration Photorespiration is wasteful as it is not part of the Calvin Cycle, so if it can be avoided, it saves energy for the plant C4 plants solve the problem of photorespiration Fix CO2 to a C3 molecule phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) The result is oxaloacetate, a C4 molecule In hot & dry climates C4 plants avoid photorespiration Net productivity is about 2-3 times greater than C3 plants Plants include sugarcane, corn, Bermuda grass, crab grass In cool, moist environments, C4 plants can't compete with C3 plants CAM Photosynthesis Crassulacean-Acid Metabolism CAM plants partition carbon fixation by time During the night CAM plants fix CO2 Form C4 molecules, which are Stored in large vacuoles During daylight NADPH and ATP are available Stomata are closed for water conservation C4 molecules release CO2 to Calvin cycle

Protists Characteristics

Lack a membrane-bounded nucleus (DNA in nucleoid region) Outer cell wall containing peptidoglycan Some move by flagella Lack membranous organelles May have accessory ring of DNA (plasmid)

Components that go into HWE and can cause evolution

Mutations- Mutations allow for new alleles and raw material that allows for change. Some mutations are more adaptive than others. Although they are rare, they are the driving force. Migration/Gene Flow- Gene flow is the movement of alleles between populations when gametes or seeds (in plants) are carried into another population and breeding individuals migrate into or out of the population. Continual gene flow reduces genetic divergence between the population while no gene flow allows for populations to become more divergent. Genetic Drift- Genetic drift relates to the changes in the allele frequencies of a population due to change rather than selection by the environment. This doesn't necessarily lead to adaptation by the environment. It occurs by disproportionate random sampling from the population. This can cause the gene pools of two populations to become dissimilar and some alleles to be lost and others fixed. It is likely to occur after a bottleneck, severe inbreeding, and founders start a new population. It has a stronger effect on small populations. Nonrandom Mating- Nonrandom mating where individuals don't choose mates randomly. One type of random mating is assortative random mating where individuals select mates with the same phenotype concerning certain characteristics. Natural selection- There are multiple types of natural selection. Three types of selection occur; directional selection, stabilizing selection, and disruptive selection. Directional selection is when the curve shifts in one direction. Stabilizing selection is when the peak of the curve increases and tails decrease. Disruptive selection is when the curve has two peaks. There is also sexual selection which is when adaptive changes in males and females lead to an increased ability to secure a mate. Male competition is the increased ability to compete with other males for a mate. One type of male competition is dimorphism, a phenotypic difference between males and females of the population. Another type of male competition is territoriality which is when dominant males use different methods to communicate to others that the territory and its females belong to that dominant member. Female choice also takes a part in sexual selection. This is when females choose to select a male with the best fitness.

Characteristics of major biomes

Major terrestrial ecosystems characterized by climate and geography. One type of terrestrial biome is the tundra. The arctic tundra encircles Earth just south of ice-covered polar seas in the Northern Hemisphere. It covers 20% of Earth's land surface. The permafrost layer never thaws. Trees are not found in the tundra as the growing season is too short, roots cannot penetrate permafrost, and roots cannot become anchored in shallow boggy soil. Short grasses, sedges, lichen, and moss found in summer months. Some burrowing organisms and animals adapted to cold live year-round. Coniferous Forests is another terrestrial biome that is found in the taiga, near mountaintops, and along the Pacific Coast of North America. Taiga typifies coniferous forest with cone-bearing trees. Trees are well adapted to cold, leaves and bark have thick covering, and needle-like leaves can withstand the weight of heavy snowfall. Temperate Rainforest (old-growth forest) of Pacific Northwest includes the Evergreen forest. Mostly colder-adapted organisms prevalent in this ecosystem. Temperate Deciduous forest is another terrestrial biome. It is found south of taiga in eastern North America, eastern Asia, and much of Europe. There is a moderate climate there meaning there is relatively high rainfall and four well-defined seasons with long growing seasons. The tallest tree in this biome forms a canopy. The ground-life is plentiful as amphibians and reptiles found in these environments, unlike taiga, because winters are not as cold. Another terrestrial biome is the tropical rainforest. Tropical rainforests are found in equatorial regions where warm weather and plentiful rainfall. There is a complex structure with a forest floor, understory, and canopy. Most animals live in trees and there is an abundance of insect life. Epiphytes grow in many areas and some plants grow on other plants. The soil there is nutrient-poor due to the rapid recycling of nutrients. To add, shrublands are another terrestrial biome. It tends to occur along coasts that have dry summers and wet winters. Shrubs are adapted to withstand arid conditions. Dense shrubland in California is known as chaparral. Additionally, grasslands are another terrestrial biome. It occurs when annual rainfall is greater than 25 cm but generally insufficient to support trees. Grasses there are well adapted to changing environments. Lastly, desserts are another terrestrial biome that is usually found at latitudes of about 30* in both hemispheres. It covers nearly 30% of the Earth's land surface. The descending winds lack moisture and the annual rainfall is less than 25 cm. There is a large temperature differential between day and night. Plants and animals found in these regions have evolved to better conserve their water than other organisms.

Difference between monocots and eudicots

Monocots and dicots are two different classes of flowering plants. Monocots have one cotyledon in seed, which dicots have two cotyledons in seed. The number of cotyledons impacts the structure of the plant such as the pollens, flowers, roots, leaves, and stems. Monocot have pollen grains with one pore or furrow, flowers have three flower parts and multiples of three, leaves are narrow with parallel veins, vascular bundles are small and spread throughout the stem, and fibrous roots. Dicots have pollen grain with three pores or furrows, flowers have four or five floral parts and multiples of four and five parts, leaves are oval or palmate with net-like veins, vascular bundles arranged in a ring around the stem, and tap roots. Monocot root's tissue of the root's pith is surrounded by a vascular ring. Monocot roots have the same growth zones as eudicot roots, but do not undergo secondary growth. Monocot roots have pericycle, endodermis, cortex, and epidermis. Monocots and dicots also differ on how they store nutrients. In monocots, cotyledon store nutrients and also absorb other molecules from the endosperm. In eudicots, cotyledon stores all nutrients the embryo will need.

Fungi

Multicellular usually have a thallus or body structure called mycelium Made up of a network of filaments known as hyphae Provide high surface area : volume - good for absorption Hyphae can wall off as they grow, becoming septate If no cell walls form, nonseptate Lack chloroplasts Have a cell wall made of chitin instead of cellulose Most are non-motile Only movement is toward food source by extension of hyphae

Plants

Multicellular, photosynthetic eukaryotes, marked by adaptation to land existence - Thought to have evolved from green algae; Charophytes closest by RNA analysis -Adaptation to land required ability to constant threat of drying out; but CO2 more available - Able to store excess carbohydrates as starch - Cellulose cell walls

post zygotic barriers

Post-zygotic barriers are barriers related to the inability of the hybrid to produce offspring, such as the sterile mule.

pre-zygotic barriers

Pre-zygotic barriers are barriers that prevent fertilization, which could be geographic or behavioral differences, such as if two species reproduce at different times of the year, which is known as temporal isolation.

Blood flow through the heart

SVC --> Rt atria --> Tricuspid --> Rt ventricle --> Pulmonic valve --> Lungs --> Lt atria --> Mitral valve --> Lt ventricle --> aortic valve --> aorta --> Body

Photoreceptors

Sensory receptors responsible for responding to light

Chemoreceptors

Sensory receptors responsible for taste and smell

Thermoreceptors

Sensory receptors stimulated by changes in temperature

Mechanoreceptors

Sensory receptors stimulated by mechanical forces, such as pressure

Allopatric Speciation

The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another.

Sympatric Speciation

The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area

Role of the light-dependent reactions vs light-independent reactions

The goal of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis is to collect energy from the sun and break down water molecules to produce ATP and NADPH. These two energy-storing molecules are then used in the light-independent reactions. The light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) use stored chemical energy from the light-dependent reactions to "fix" CO2 and create a product that can be converted into glucose. Light-dependent reactions - Convert light energy into chemical energy Light-independent reactions - Use stored chemical energy to "fix" CO2 and create a product that can be converted into glucose

nature vs nurture behaviors

The idea of nature (inherited) vs nurture (environment) has been debated a lot as it is hard to make a controlled experiment. One piece of evidence pointing towards inheritance is the Nest Building Behavior in Lovebirds. Fischer lovebirds and peached-faced lovebirds build nests and carry leaves in different ways (Peach cut shorter strips and carry in their feathers to nest). They found that hybrid offsprings between these two species had difficulty carrying nesting materials as they would try both the peach and fischer ways but it wouldn't work. Another piece of evidence to support the idea of nature is the Nurturing Behavior in mice. Maternal behavior port-birth found to be dependent on the presence of a single gene termed fosB. To add, the food choice of the garter snakes also supports the idea of nature. Inland populations are aquatic and feed on frogs and fish while coastal populations are terrestrial and feed primarily on slugs. Inland populations refuse to consume slugs in the laboratory, however, hybrid offspring between these two species accept slugs as a food source One piece of evidence pointing towards nurture is a type of associative learning called classical conditioning. The paired presentation of two different types of stimuli causes an animal to form an association between them. Another piece of evidence pointing towards nurture is a type of associative learning called operant conditioning. This utilizes gradual strengthening of stimulus-response connections to train a subject. Lastly, a piece of evidence pointing towards nurture is social interactions and learnings. Avian brain is especially sensitive to acoustical stimuli during a sensitive period. Social experience appears to have an even stronger influence over the development of singing.

virus

Viruses related to variety of plant, animal, and human disease Non-cellular construction May have DNA or RNA genome Able to evolve as a result of mutations Require the machinery of the host cell they infect to replicate Not considered living Don't have metabolism, cannot respond to stimuli

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

Similarities and differences between viruses and bacteria

differences: most important difference is that bacteria are free-living cells that can live inside or outside another organism, whereas viruses are non-living collection of materials (ex. proteins, nucleic acids) that need a host to survive bacteria reproduce mainly by binary fission (just replicating dna, then making new cell wall) while viruses need a host's cellular machinery to reproduce similarities: not all bacteria and not all viruses are bad both contain genetic material

Cohesion-tension model

explanation for upward transport of water in xylem based upon transpiration-created tension and the cohesive properties of water molecules

Plant reproductive structures

flowers, seeds, fruits

structure of heart

has four chambers (right and left atriums, right and left ventricles)

Circulatory structures

heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph nodes and vessels, lymph

conservation of biodiversity

includes habitat corridors, reintroduction programs, sustainable use

How do viruses work - what do they do - what components make them "living"

it can replicate itself - living Relies on host cell enzymes, ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and ATP for its own replication Don't care about mistakes in reproduction, allowing mutations to happen, making it possible for viral evolution

Pressure-Flow Model

model for predicting how sugars are transported from photosynthetic tissue to the rest of a plant

Respiratory structures

nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes, lungs

Hardy-Weinberg equation

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

female plant parts

pistil which is composed of the stigma, style, ovary and ovule Carpel is the female portion of flower Stigma- Enlarged sticky knob Style- Slender stalk Ovary- Enlarged base enclosing ovules Some plants can have multiple fused carpal, that develop and are known as compound Ex: orange