Biology - Unit 3- ch 4, 6, 27 and videos

Does bariatric surgery work?

Bothmajor types of weight-loss surgery can reverse type 2 diabetes, a condition in which the body can no longer regulate bloodsugarlevels and can damage organs and nerves.

In 1999, when Manary first looked around for an alternative treatment to combat severe hunger, he considered sending kids home with a bag of ingredients, such as corn flour and soy, to make traditional meals. He quickly realized, however, that this would not work.

First, such foods would need to be cooked, and cooking is extra work for an already overburdened family. Second, severely malnourished children would need to eat many bowls of these foods per day in order to obtain enough nutrients to recover. Third, the food wouldn't keep.

----, on the other hand—especially when it has been fortified with additional nutrients—is a highly effective way of delivering the most nutrients per spoonful of food. Technically, it's known as a -----which means it is a complete source of nutrition. "If you eat RUTF you don't need to eat anything else," says Manary. "You're getting everything you need—period." The RUTF that Manary uses is made up of four main ingredients: full-fat milk powder, sugar, vegetable oil, and peanut butter Peanut butter is a useful treatment for malnutrition partly because it is ----, which helps children put on weight fast.

Peanut butter ready-to-use-therapeutic food (RUTF), energy-dense

Manary doesn't disagree. He believes that the ultimate solution to malnutrition is prevention through improved ---.

agriculture

The energy in food is often measured in units called ----. A calorie (in lower case) is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of --- On most food labels, the amount of energy stored is listed in ---, which are also referred to as kcals or Calories (with a capital "C"). One Calorie is equal to 1,000 calories, which is equal to 1 kcal.

calories 1 g of water by 1°C. kilocalories

What is the anatomy of the digestive system? The digestive system can be thought of as having two main components: a ---—essentially a long tube lined with muscles that extends from the mouth to the anus; and ---that flank the tract and assist indigestion. (The stomach is one part of the central digestive tract.) As the muscles of the digestive tract alternately relax and contract, food is pushed along. The accessory organs located along the length of the tract secrete enzymes and other chemicals into the tract to help break down food molecules. Through these coordinated actions, the digestive system transforms the food we eat into a form our bodies can use and rids the body of the waste left over once usable nutrients are removed from food we have taken in

central digestive tract accessory organs

The only way to gain weight is by taking in more Calories than we expend through our activities. If we take more food energy into our bodies than we use to power cellular reactions and physical movement and generate heat, the excess is stored as fat. In other words, our waistlines obey the principle of ----: energy is neither created nor destroyed but merely converted from one form into another.

conservation of energy

Scientists sometimes refer to the first 1,000 days of life, from gestation to age 2, as the "---." "Babies go through a huge amount of physical and cognitive development during this period of 1,000 days," "If deficits occur in this window, they are difficult to reverse, especially in continued conditions of poverty." In Malawi, villages are sometimes miles from the nearest health facility.

golden interval

In the gastric sleeve, the reduced stomach still "feeds" into the ---, and there are no other changes to the digestive tract or digestion. In gastric bypass, food from the reduced stomach is redirected to the ----, bypassing part of the stomach and the upper small intestine. In order to ensure that the food can still mix with digestive enzymes in the stomach and small intestine, the portion of the stomach and small intestine that is bypassed is surgically connected to the lower small intestine. Digestive tract secretions still mix with food, but after food has bypassed the stomach and the upper portion of the small intestine

small intestine lower portion of the small intestine

Bariatric surgery

•Surgically reduces the size of the stomach, either temporarily or permanently •Reduces the amount of food the stomach can hold •Prevents a person from overeating

Digestive System 1 Digestion 2 Absorption

1 The breaking down of food into smaller components. 2 Uptake of the smaller components to be used by the body. Example: Legos - Break down an assembled Lego figure (digestion) and then claim the blocks as your own and reuse the blocks to make something else (absorption).

Freshmen 15 1- What is it? 2- Why does it happen? 3- Metabolism = Catabolism + Anabolism

1- ◦A commonly used phrase for the weight students gainwhen they enter college ◦According to different studies freshman gain 6.5 -9 lbs in their first year and 10 -14 lbs over their college career 2- ◦All you can eat cafeterias ◦Late night snacks ◦Less active ◦Beer and other alcohol (more on this later) ◦Others 3- ◦Catabolic Reactions yield (release) energy - Breakdown ◦Anabolic Reactions Require (store) energy - Build-up

Fats

1- high in calories because they are large complex molecules that cannot be broken down into monomers 2- long-term energy storage

Energy in the sunlight 1- The ultimate source of energy is the sun

1- plants only use energy from the sunlight to power photosynthesis - however, plants need to use matter to create building blocks for other matter

The atom 1- atoms are attracted to each other to find electrons to fill their outer shell 2- atoms can gain an electron from other atoms in different ways 3- When atoms share, lose, or gained electrons a chemical bond is created 4- when two or more atoms are joined together by chemical bonds, the group of atoms is called a molecule 5- when bonds are made, energy is stored 6- when bonds are broken, energy is released

2- - take - give - share - all of these create a bond

Atom: carbon 1- carbon is an atom - six protons - in the nucleus - six electrons- in the cloud 2- how many bonds can carbon form?

2- 4

"Peanuts are the only plant I know of that has ---fat, when you get rid of the water," says Manary. But the fattening quality is only part of peanut butter's appeal. Because it contains very little water and has a pasty consistency that keeps out air, peanut butter is naturally resistant to ----; bacteria can't grow without water. It also doesn't require ----and is, therefore, ready to eat at any time. And it's full of ---, a crucial macronutrient for growing children. All these things make peanut butter a near-perfect therapeutic food, supplying children with the necessary fats, carbohydrates, proteins, and essential amino acids (from the milk powder) that they would otherwise lack.

50% spoiling cooking protein

A Balanced Diet 1 whole grains - high in 2 meat, fish, beans - high in 3 healthy oils - high in 4 dairy - high in 5 fruit and vegetables - high in

1 - complex carbohydrates ( including fiber) - vitimans - minerals 2 - protines - fats - vitimins - minerals 3 - fats 4 - protines - fats - vitimins - minerals 5 - complex carbohydrates ( including fiber) - vitamins - minerals

1.1- Can you make biological sense of a nutrition label? 1.2- What's a calorie? 1.3- What's a Fat, Carbohydrate, and Protein?

1 1.1- Our bodies get energy from the food we eat. When we digest food, our bodies use some energy right away and store the rest of the energy for later. - Ideally, we take in as much energy as we need. If we take in more energy than we need, our bodies will store the extra energy as fat. If we take in less energy than we need, our bodies will get energy from stored fat. 1.2- A calorie is a measure of energy. The calorie number we see on food labels refers to a kilocalorie (kcal), which is also known as a large calorie or a food calorie. - A kilocalorie is 1 000 calories. - One kilocalorie is the amount of energy it takes to heat one kilogram of water one degree Celsius at sea level. - For foods, the calorie count is a measure of how much energy that food stores in its chemical bonds. 1.3- - Fats are macronutrients that give you energy. Fats have 9 calories in each gram. - Fats help in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. F - ats are either saturated or unsaturated, and most foods with fat have both types. - Carbohydrates, or carbs, are sugar molecules and a macronutrient. - Your body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose. Glucose, or blood sugar, is the main source of energy for your body's cells, tissues, and organs. -Carbohydrates have 4 calories in each gram. - Protein is a macronutrient that is essential to building muscle mass. - It is commonly found in animal products, though is also present in other sources, such as nuts - Protein have 4 calories in each gram.

While corn is a good source of complex carbohydrates, like starch, it is not a significant source of protein or fat. This leaves out many essential nutrients needed for a healthful diet, including vital amino acids. A few more amino acids are considered essential for infants and children. ----, such as ---,---,---,---, are the richest sources of essential amino acids, but in many places around the globe, these foods are luxuries people can't afford

Animal products such as meat, eggs, fish, and dairy

The four fats on a scale from good to bad

1- Poly unsaturated fats or omega-3 fatty acids 2- Mono unsaturated 3- saturated fats 4- trans fatty acids - when showing that it's less than .44 g, the nutrition facts does not need to show it

The Atom 1- electron shells 2- inner shell 3- outer shells 4- atoms are most stable when their outer shell is full

1- areas that surround the nucleus - each shell can hold a specific number of electrons 2- can hold two electrons 3- can each hold eight electrons

Autotrophs convert light energy into chemical energy

1- autotrophs are organisms that carry out photosynthesis, a process that converts light energy into chemical energy 2- creating sugar molecules called glucose sugar (creating bonds/ building) 3 - creates 1- usable energy - some of the chemical energy is converted into a form that is available to power cellular functions 2- stored energy - some of the chemical energy is stored as potential energy in molecules like oil 3- Cellular structures - some of the chemical energy is used as building blocks for cell structures 4- there are three basic types of autotroph 1- Plants 2- Algae 3- some bacteria (Cyanobacteria)

Lactose intolerance

1- cause- The body does not make enough of enzymes found in milk - lactase to break down all lactose (A double sugar) 2- symptoms- bloating, gas, cramps, diarrhea, within 20 mins - 2 hrs of eating foods with lactose 3- treatment - avoid dairy products, take artificial enzyme pill, drink lactic -acid milk 4- Who is affected? - 30 -50 million Americans and this varies per country

Saturated fats

1- fatty acids are bonded 2- A rigid structure 3- causes clots or buildup in arteries 4- solid at room temperature 5- typically animal in origin 6- dietary sources include meat, cheese, butter,

Poly unsaturated fats

1- has greatest health benefits - reduces fat buildup in arteries 2- also referred to as omega-3 fatty acids 3- found in fatty fish like salmon, tuna, and found in olive oil

Carbohydrates aka Saccarides

1- monosaccharides - simple sugar monomer that includes glucose and fructose 2- disaccharides - double sugars including lactose, table sugar (sucrose) 3- polysaccharides - includes starches and fiber 4- carbs must be broken down into monomers to be absorbed by the body - they are short term energy storage - glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water

Trans fat

1- not naturally occurring fats 2- liquid oil and hydrogen = trans fat 3- no kinky, it is straight 4- also called partially hydrogenated oil 5- takes kinkiness us out of unsaturated fats 6- FDA requires labels to identify trans fat 7- sources include fast foods, fries, cookies, etc. 8- increase risk of heart diseases and plaque buildup 8- also called partially hydrogenated vegetable - why add hydrogen? 1- increases Storage life 2- make soil more solid

Capturing energy - for almost all living things on earth, the ultimate source of energy is the sun 1- autotrophs - direct 2- heterotrophs - indirect

1- organisms such as plants, algae, and certain bacteria that capture the energy of sunlight by photosynthesis 2- organisms that obtain energy by eating other organisms - like us - animals

Energy is the capacity to do work - Energy is not matter - Energy cannot become matter 1- autotrophs - 2- matter is anything that takes up space and has mass

1- organisms that convert light energy to chemical energy through photosynthesis - can Not convert energy into matter 2- exist in many diverse forms: - rocks, metals, wood, Oils, greases, and organisms - matter cannot be created nor destroyed - only transformed into a different matter

1 Carbohydrates 2 Proteins 3 Fats

1- simple sugars and has 4 cal 2- amino acids and has 4 cal 3- fatty acids and glycerol - more energy and fats than the other two - has 9 cal

Enzymes speed up reactions by facilitating the breaking or formation of ---in substrates. In the case of catabolic reactions, the binding of the enzyme to its substrate puts stress on a chemical bond, causing it to ---. - In an anabolic reaction, the enzyme brings substrate molecules together in close proximity, increasing the likelihood that a ---between them will form Enzymes Facilitate ---

chemical bonds break bond Chemical Reactions

ATP is spent anytime a muscle ---or---. When we go for a run, or even when we sit in a chair but tap our feet, our muscle cells break the bonds in ATP. The energy released allows muscle fibers to contract, powering movement. In our large brain, which runs principally on ----, ATP is spent to move ions across cell membranes, enabling our neurons to fire. Of all the organs in the body, the ---is the largest consumer of energy. When we die, the rigor mortis that sets in occurs because ATP is required for muscle proteins to slide past one another; without it, they stay locked in place, and become stiff (and so do you). Ensuring a steady supply of ATP is therefore one of life's most critical activities.

contracts or a neuron fires glucose brain

In effect, enzymes catalyze reactions by lowering the amount of ---required to nudge a chemical reaction into motion. Enzymes substantially reduce this activation energy, allowing the reaction to occur more easily. You can think of activation energy as the amount of energy an athlete needs to surmount a hurdle; the steeper the hurdle, the more energy required. Enzyme-catalyzed reactions are leaping over a much lower bar, so less energy is required to clear it Enzymes Catalyze Reactions by ---

energy Lowering Activation Energy

Department of Agriculture estimated that 48.1 million Americans were ----at some point in the previous year, including 32.8 million adults and 15.3 million children—roughly 14 percent of American households. Unlike in the developing world, in the United States the problem is not so much food shortages as ----that prevents access to food. Food insecurity means a lack of access to enough nutritionally adequate food for a healthy life. Food availability is unequally distributed across the United States.

food insecure poverty

Food producers routinely add to foods some micronutrients that are ----from natural sources. Iodine, for example, is added to table salt (in "iodized" salt) to prevent goiter, an abnormal thickening of the neck caused by an enlarged thyroid gland due to a lack of dietary iodine. The peanut butter RUTF that Manary uses contains a mineral and vitamin mix that is 1.6% of the paste by weight. Although peanut butter naturally contains many micronutrients, the amounts malnourished children need are greater than what is normally found in most foods. So the peanut paste is deliberately enriched with micronutrients

hard to obtain

Cellular respiration Sugar + Oxygen →Carbon Dioxide + Water ◦We break down food into carbohydrates, proteins and fats. These enter the process and releasing energy. ◦When we use oxygen, it is call aerobic respiration Aerobic respiration gives us the biggest return!

oxygen is scarce - Sometimes oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen intake - Electron transport chain has no oxygen to receive electrons

Despite the powerful acid churning inside it, the stomach remains intact. This is possible because the stomach is lined with a thick layer of ---. Occasionally, this mucus layer is damaged—by a bacterial infection, for example—and the stomach lining becomes more vulnerable to gastric juices; the result is a painful sore called an ulcer. While the stomach can absorb some substances directly into the bloodstream—water, ethanol, and certain drugs, for example—most of the chyme is pushed farther down the digestive tract, where it is further processed. Although the stomach is only a small part of the ----, it plays a large part in weight gain. Evolutionarily speaking, the reason we have a stomach in the first place is to enable us to temporarily store the food we eat. Without a stomach, we would have to ----to fuel our activities. When we eat a large meal, the stomach expands greatly to accommodate and store all that food. It's partly because of this elasticity that we can eat enough to sustain us for hours. But this elasticity also means that we can eat more than our bodies need.

protective mucus upper digestive tract eat constantly

Follow the carbon - photosynthesis is a source of carbon for plants

- 6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2 - carbon dioxide + water = carbohydrates + oxygen - A single tree will absorb the 1 ton of carbon dioxide over its lifetime

resperation

- Aerobic respiration = with oxygen - Anaerobic respiration (fermentation) = without oxygen ◦Not as efficient as aerobic respiration ◦Used when we deplete our O2reserves - Example: running a sprint - can't replenish O2 fast enough ◦There are different types of fermentation

Freshmen 15 1- Can you prevent it?

- Eat What You Need, Not What You See - "Hitting the Books" does not mean, "Ordering a Pizza" - Stop Studying and Hit The Sack - Skip the Diet. - Increase Your Curb Appeal - Do NOT eat less than yourdaily required BMR or your body will enter astate of starvation! Thiscan have opposite results

yeast

- When yeast ferment they give off alcohol! ◦6,000 years ago humans started brewing beer. ◦Yeast feed on sugars (carbohydrates, usually grains) and ferment, producing alcohol an accident: 19thCentury BC ◦Partially Baked Bread (bappir) ◦Made from Barley ◦Soaked in water ◦Flavored with dates & honey ◦Spontaneously fermented ◦Filtered and Consumed Immediately

why are people getting bigger

1 biological history famine was commn - human bodies evolved to hoard energy in forms of fat to get through times when food was scarce 2 cultural influence an abundance of high-fat, processed food is increasingly common in developed countries 3- obesity is influened by biology and culture

Mono unsaturated fats

1- Kinky - has one king 2- more liquid at room temperature (bendy) 3- tends to come from plants such as like canola, corn oil's 4- kink and flexible chain

Calories

1- good Powers cellular respiration 2- body breaks down food into subunits (monomers) that are used as building blocks to make new molecules that we can use 3- Energy in food is measured in calories 4- our bodies use calories each day just to do activities needed to stay alive 5- total daily energy needs very person by person 6- different organic molecules contain different amount of stored energy

7 Where does the majority of chemical digestion take place? 8 What do pepsin and salivary amylase have in common? How do their activities differ? 9 What organ produces lipase? 10 Someone whose gallbladder has been surgically removed will have trouble processing

7 small intestine 8 Answer: Pepsin and salivary amylase are both digestive enzymes. Pepsin digests proteins in the stomach, an environment with an acidic pH. Salivary amylase digests carbohydrates in the mouth, an environment with a neutral pH 9 Answer: Lipase is produced by the pancreas 10 fats.

Exercise and lactic acid

Stored oxygen quickly used = Lactic acid build-up

The small intestine is where most ----of food occurs, assisted by the secretions of several accessory organs. The pancreas, for example, secretes enzymes that help break down organic macromolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into smaller molecules. It also secretes alkaline pancreatic juice into the small intestine to neutralize the acidic chyme, which would otherwise damage the small intestine The first part of the small intestine, where this mixing occurs, is called the ---. Enzymes secreted by the small intestine itself further break down macromolecules into building blocks such as amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, and glycerol.

chemical digestion duodenum

Without enough food, people lack adequate ---, which provide the chemical building blocks our bodies need to live, grow, and repair themselves. All organisms are made up of chemical building blocks such as ---,---,---(see Chapter 2). Because humans (and other animals) can't make these components in their bodies, we need to obtain them from our --- These nutrients also provide us with the energy needed to power ---. Both ---and----are crucial components of the nutrients in food, but for simplicity, we will discuss them separately

nutrients organic molecules, water, and ions diet essential life activities building blocks and energy

When experts talk about a nutritious diet, they mean one that provides all the ====our bodies need for health, in the ---amounts. Nutrients that the body requires in large amounts are called ----.

nutrients appropriate macronutrients

Malnutrition-related problems usually start when children are 6 months old. Babies younger than 6 months are sustained easily by breast-feeding alone. Breast milk is a perfect food for children at this age, explains Manary. It is ----for what their bodies can handle, and it provides protection against ---and---. Since 2001, the World Health Organization has recommended that women breast-feed exclusively until a child is 6 months old (and they are encouraged to continue for 2 years and beyond, even after infants begin to eat other food). At 6 months, however, children's growing bodies require more nourishment than breast milk can provide, but no other food is as plentiful or accessible. Malnutrition due to chronic undereating sets in after a period of time, usually between ages 1 and 3.

nutritionally appropriate infections and disease

Macronutrients from the diet cannot be used directly by our bodies, in part because they are ----to be absorbed into the bloodstream from our digestive tract. To be useful, macronutrients must first be broken down into smaller subunits by --- These subunits are small enough to be absorbed from the ----,taken up by ---,used to build the ---. For example, dietary carbohydrates from bread and pasta are broken down into simple sugars, which our bodies use to build an energy-storing carbohydrate called glycogen in liver and muscle tissue. = Proteins from a steak are broken down into amino acids, which can be taken up and used to build new proteins, like those making up our muscles. = Fats from our diet are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol, which are used to assemble the phospholipids that make up cell membranes.

too large digestion digestive tract, cells, and macromolecules our cells need

Gastric bypass surgery Gastric banding surgery

•Involves altering the small intestine Laparoscopic gastric banding is surgery to help with weight loss. The surgeon places a band around the upper part of your stomach to create a small pouch to hold food. The band limits the amount of food you can eat by making you feel full after eating small amounts of food.

Conservation of energy

- Energy cannot be created or destroyed -converted from one form to another - stored potential energy, for example, con be converted from potential energy (stored chemical energy) to kinetic energy (such as digestion breaking down chemical bonds and release energy, used to contract muscles and generate heat)

Sugar versus sweeteners 1- add sugar cane or high fructose corn syrup 2-are they really the same?

- HFCS= 55% fructose, 45% glucose - cane sugar= 50% Fructose 50% glucose - agave= 70- 80% fructose - honey= 53% fructose, 47% glucose antioxidants 1- fructose is used differently than glucose in the body - fructose is not broken down by cellular respiration instead, it is used to make fat 2- sugar is 4 cal and artificial sweetener is 0 cal - consider calories and energy - consider blood sugar because artificial sweeteners still spike blood sugar

Body Mass Index (BMI)

- Quick estimate of where you stand on the healthy weight scale - Using the chart find where your weight and height cross - Not exact ◦Individuals with high muscle mass ◦Different body frames

Proteins

1- made up of amino acids ( monomers) 2- we use proteins for nearly everything in our bodies Ex- tastebud receptors 3- Constant energy 4- protein molecules are major causes of food allergies - 90% of all proteins in foods cause allergies - proteins rule our bodies in the shape determines the function

Fats Dietary fats can be

1- saturated 2- Mono unsaturated 3- poly unsaturated 4- trans fatty acids

Any chemical reaction that combines simple molecules to build more complex molecules. All biochemical reactions occurring in an organism, including reactions that break down food molecules and reactions that build new cell structures. A protein that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction. The process of speeding up the rate of a chemical reaction (e.g., by an enzyme).

ANABOLIC REACTION METABOLISM ENZYME CATALYSIS

Chemicals produced by the liver and stored by the gallbladder that emulsify fats so that they can be chemically digested by enzymes. An organ that stores bile salts and releases them as needed into the small intestine. A fat-digesting enzyme active in the small intestine. The last organ of the digestive tract, in which remaining water is absorbed and solid stool is formed. Solid waste material eliminated from the digestive tract.

BILE SALTS GALLBLADDER LIPASE LARGE INTESTINE STOOL

The section of the digestive tract between the mouth and the stomach. Coordinated muscular contractions that force food down the digestive tract. A protein-digesting enzyme that is active in the stomach. The acidic "soup" of partially digested food that leaves the stomach and enters the small intestine.

ESOPHAGUS PERISTALSIS PEPSIN CHYME

A series of reactions that breaks down sugar into smaller units; glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm and is the first stage of both aerobic respiration and fermentation. A set of reactions that takes place in mitochondria and helps extract energy (in the form of high-energy electrons) from food; the second stage of aerobic respiration. An electron carrier. NAD+ can accept electrons, becoming NADH in the process. The transfer of electrons that takes place in mitochondria and produces the bulk of ATP during aerobic respiration; the third stage of aerobic respiration

GLYCOLYSIS CITRIC ACID CYCLE NAD+ ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

----is required for proper muscle contraction and nerve function. It is one of many minerals that we need to keep healthy. Because most minerals are required only in small amounts, they are known as ---(as opposed to macronutrients, which are needed in much larger quantities). ---are another kind of micronutrient. Just because our bodies require only small amounts of micronutrients doesn't mean they aren't important. Micronutrient deficiency can have serious health consequences. Iron deficiency can impair the blood's ability to carry oxygen, causing anemia, for example, and lack of vitamin C causes a tissue-deteriorating disease called scurvy. In Malawi, as in many parts of the developing world, people often suffer deficiencies of vitamin A and zinc, which can cause impairment of vision and the immune system. Such micronutrient deficiencies are sometimes known as "----," because the problem is not lack of food per se, but a lack of ---. Manary says the problem is widespread because most of the world's staple crops—foods like rice, corn, wheat, and cassava—do not contain adequate micronutrients.

Potassium micronutrients Vitamins hidden hunger necessary micronutrients

The organ in which the bulk of chemical digestion and absorption of food occurs. An organ that helps digestion by producing enzymes (such as lipase) that act in the small intestine, and by secreting a juice that neutralizes acidic chyme. The first portion of the small intestine, where mixing of chyme and digestive enzymes occurs. An organ that aids digestion by producing bile salts that emulsify fats.

SMALL INTESTINE PANCREAS DUODENUM LIVER

Food is the most basic of human requirements for survival, but on average 1 in 8 people goes to bed hungry each night. ---is the number one killer of children in the world. An estimated 3.5 million children die from malnutrition every year—more than the number who die from AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria combined. Most of these deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa, where grinding poverty is endemic, and food is scarce for large portions of the year. Historically, more than half of all Malawian children are chronically malnourished, and nearly one in four die from the consequences of this malnutrition.

Severe acute malnutrition

fermentation ingredients

Sugars (carbs) ◦Malt -grain that has just sprouted - Usually barley - Can be wheat or rice ◦Grapes ◦Molasses Yeast ◦Completes Anaerobic Cellular Respiration - By product = alcoholWater ◦Beer is 90% Water Requires: ◦Mixing Ingredients ◦Maintaining Optimal Temperatures - Break Polymers (Starch) into Monomers (sugar) ◦Time to Ferment

--- = Organic molecules not synthesized by the body. The excess vitamin is excreted in urine and so does not harm health. --- = Organic molecules not synthesized by the body (except vitamin D). The excess vitamin is stored in fat cells and can harm health. Vitamins and minerals play numerous roles in the body. Some play structural roles—the mineral calcium, for example, is a primary component of bones and teeth. Others play functional roles, helping other molecules to act. Perhaps their most critical role is serving as cofactors that ---- Vitamins and Minerals Have --- ---are accessory or "helper" substances that enable enzymes to function. Cofactors include inorganic metals such as ---,---,---Cofactors can also be organic molecules, in which case they are called ---. Most vitamins are important coenzymes. Without cofactors and coenzymes that bind to enzymes and enable them to bind to substrates, ----would grind to a halt

WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS: FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS: assist enzymes Essential Functions Cofactors zinc, copper, and iron. coenzymes cell metabolism

18 When vitamins are consumed: a- Why does excess vitamin E cause problems, but excess vitamin C does not? b- If you were to take a supplement with a high amount of vitamin C, what would happen to all that vitamin C? Would it all be used? Would some of it be stored in your body? 19 What ingredient(s) in RUTF peanut paste specifically help bone growth?

a- Vitamin C is water soluble, so any excess is removed from the body in the urine. Vitamin E is fat soluble, so excess is stored in fatty tissues in the body, possibly accumulating to toxic levels. b- High levels of vitamin C supplementation will not lead to storage of vitamin C in the body. Any excess over what is needed is excreted from the body, dissolved in the urine. 19 calcium and vitamin D

When does fermentation occur, and why can't a human survive strictly on fermentation? Without oxygen to accept electrons, the ---stops, and aerobic respiration grinds to a halt. When this happens, another form of metabolism, ---, comes into play. This is an ---process, which means that it occurs without oxygen. During fermentation, the products of glycolysis do not go through the ---and----. Instead, they are shunted into a different set of reactions, which takes place in the ---and produce ---as a by-product.

electron transport chain fermentation anaerobic citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain cell's cytoplasm lactic acid

The food we eat also contains ---, the fourth macromolecule making up cells. Although not considered macronutrients (because ----), nucleic acids are also broken down into smaller subunits called ---, which are used by cells to build ---and---. Breaking down food to build up our bodies means that, quite literally, we are what we eat

nucleic acids we need them in smaller amounts nucleotides DNA and RNA

In humans, fermentation takes place primarily during bursts of ---, such as sprinting, when oxygen in muscles is scarce. . ---—which carry lots of oxygen but lack mitochondria—also must rely on glycolysis and fermentation to produce ATP. (The product of fermentation, ---, was once thought to be the cause of muscle cramping, but newer research suggests this is not the case.) In some organisms, fermentation produces alcohol rather than lactic acid as a by-product. Brewer's yeast, for example, is a fungus that ferments sugar, producing alcohol as a result. Humans use brewer's yeast to make beer and wine.

energy-intensive activities Red blood cells lactic acid

Different foods contain different amounts of energy, and therefore allow us to perform different amounts of work. Of all the organic molecules, --are the most energy dense: each gram of fat stores approximately ---Calories in its chemical bonds. Proteins and carbohydrates are ---as energy dense: they store about ---Calories per gram. A 200-g serving of bacon contains many more Calories than does a 200-g serving of asparagus Food Powers ---

fats 9 about half 4 Cellular Work

two scientists then carefully designed a scientific study to test the product. After a brief stabilization phase in the hospital (during which antibiotics were given, if necessary), the children were discharged and sent home on one of three different treatment regimens: (1) ample amounts of traditional food—corn flour and soy; (2) a small amount of peanut butter-based RUTF, to be used as a supplement to the normal diet at home; and (3) the full dose of peanut butter-based RUTF, with sufficient nutrients to meet the total nutritional needs of the children. The goal of the study was to see which treatment regimen was most effective. Within a few months, the results were clear—and impressive: 95% of the children who received the ----recovered. Those who received -----also did pretty well—about 75% of them recovered, but still the full peanut butter-based RUTF was better. And all the ---were significantly better than standard hospital-based milk therapy, which historically had a 25%-40% recovery rate. Peanut Butter-Based RUTF Saves More Children

full peanut butter-based RUTF traditional food or supplemental RUTF home-based treatments

How many Calories a person needs to eat in order to meet daily energy needs largely depends on --- A sedentary college-age average-size male, for example, would need to consume anywhere from 2,200 and 2,400 Calories per day to power his activities and maintain his weight, whereas a football player would need more than 3,200 Calories a day to power and maintain his Balancing ----with---

gender, age, genetics, body type, and physical activity levels Energy In with Energy Out

Incidentally, many people in ---countries have peanut allergies. But in ----, such allergies are rare or nonexistent. That has more to do with the way we train our immune systems in our hyperscrubbed world, Manary explains than with any intrinsic quality of peanuts.

industrialized developing countries

The biological mechanism that allows some individuals to resist weight gain more than others, however, has ----. One obvious possibility is different amounts of --- In Levine's study, he found that test participants had markedly different levels of physical activity. Interestingly, intentional exercise was not the crucial difference in activity level Levine has a name for this type of activity: he calls it ---, short for "---."

not been identified energy expenditure. NEAT non-exercise activity thermogenesis

What are essential nutrients? To a certain extent, our bodies can compensate for a deficiency in one or another nutrient by synthesizing it from ----. - For example, if a particular amino acid is in short supply, cells may be able to make it from another amino acid that is in excess. But there are some nutrients that our bodies can't manufacture and which must be obtained pre-assembled from our diet. These nutrients are called ----. From starting materials in food, adults can synthesize ---of the --- amino acids they need to make proteins. The other 9 must be obtained pre-assembled from our diet. Because our body can't manufacture them, these 9 amino acids are called ----

other chemical components essential nutrients 11 of the 20 essential amino acids.

Where does the bulk of the organic matter (wood) come from? A Air (carbon dioxide) B soil ( no) C Sun (energy) D minerals (only 2 oz) E water (drying out wood/ no matter) F other plants (stealing) G all of the above

- The energy to build this comes from the sun however the matter comes from the air (carbon dioxide)

Biological currency

- just as gold needs to be converted to currency in order to buy merchandise, food energy needs to be converted to ATP before it can be used by the cell - adenosine triphosphate is a nucleotide that stores chemical energy in the bonds between its groups. Breaking these bonds release energy

The energy in sunlight travels in waves We can only see the visible spectrum like - rainbow ROYGBIV - The sun emits a spectrum of light energy, which travels to the earth in particles called photons. - each photon has a characteristic wavelength - the portion of the spectrum between 400 - 750 nm is called a visible light. - when a light photon hits the eye, we perceive each wave links of visible light as a particular color

- photons move in waves of varying lengths - The human eye perceives each wavelength as a different color - when sunlight hits a plant, the chlorophyll pigment in the leaf absorbs red and Blue wavelengths of visible light and reflects green - our eyes receive the reflected wavelength of about 550 nm, so we see the leaf as green Least to most energy - ROYGBIV

1 A 5'6" female weighs 167 pounds. Use infographic 6.2 to determine her BMI. Would she be considered underweight, normal weight, overweight or obese? 2 If a person wants to lose weight, which of the following are viable strategies? 3 If you frequently crave French fries, how could you modify your lifestyle to eat fries without gaining weight? Explain... 4 Why do you think that longer meal times translate into fewer Calories consumed 5 If the government were to issue tax incentives to reduce obesity in the United States, which of the following do you think would be most effective? 6 If the French eat meals with a higher fat content, why dont the French weigh more on average than Americans? 7 Which type of organic molecule stores the most energy per gram? 8 A moderately active 21-year-old female has a choice of eating a 2,500-calorie meal that is primarily protein or a 2,500-calorie meal that is primarily sugar. What would be the result, in terms of energy, of choosing one over the other?

1 Her BMI would be ~27, which would place her in the overweight category according to the CDC. 2 - Substituting plain water for regular soda- Exercising more 3 In order to keep eating fries without gaining weight, you would have either to consume Calories from other foods, or exercise more (to burn any extra Calories from the French fries). You could also combine dietary modifications and exercise to maintain your current weight. 4 You tend to consume less calories and stay full longer because it gives the body time to register that is full. 5 taxing foods high in fat 6 They eat in moderation-smaller amounts of rich dishes. Less opportunity to eat/buy in bulk. They don't snack, opt for second helpings, don't skip meals. They eat slower. They are also a lot more active. 7 Fate (Triglycerides) 8 In either case, once her glycogen stores are replenished, she will store the excess Calories as fat

1 A 6'0" male weighs 230 pounds. Use Infographic 6.1 to determine his BMI. Would he be considered underweight, of normal weight, overweight, or obese? 2 If a person wants to lose weight, which of the following will contribute to the necessary Calorie imbalance? 3 Consider the 6'0", 230-pound male from question 1. If you learned that he was an NFL quarterback, would you reconsider how to interpret his BMI? Explain your answer. (Hint: Muscle is denser than fat. A given volume of muscle will weigh more than the same volume of fat.) 4 Which snack will provide the highest number of Calories? a. 25 g sugar, 5 g protein, 0 g fat b. 30 g sugar, 0 g protein, 5 g fat c. 10 g sugar, 10 g protein, 10 g fat d. 0 g sugar, 15 g protein, 15 g fate. e. 10 g sugar, 25 g protein, 0 g fat

1 a BMI between 33 and 32 which is considered obesed 2 Fidgeting more; Eating less; Exercising more 3 Yes, you would need to reconsider because the BMI doesn't account for muscle mass and an NFL quarterback would have a high amount of muscle compared to the average male. 4 Since carbohydrates= 4 C/g and proteins= 4 C/g, and fats= 9 C/g, if you calculate each one a. (254)+(54)+(0*9)= 120 b. (304)=(04)+(5*9)= 165 c. (104)+(104)+(10*9)= 170 d. (04)+(154)+(15*9)= 195 e. (104)+(254)+(0*4)= 140 d. would have the highest Calories

1 A macronutrient is 2 Which of the following is/are macronutrient(s)? 3 A multivitamin supplement is a(n) ___________ supplement. 4 Which of the following foods is a rich source of protein? 5 Explain the difference between macronutrients and micronutrients.

1 a nutrient that is required in large amounts 2 Macronutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. 3 micronutrient 4 lean meat, such as a chicken breast 5 - Macronutrients are needed in large amounts from the diet for health.- Micronutrients are also critical for health, but are needed only in small amounts from the diet.

1 Energy is the capacity to do work. ◦Cellular work includes 2 Without a source of energy, all life on earth would ---. 3 Energy cannot be created (or destroyed)

1 processes such as building complex molecules and moving substances in and out of the cell. 2 stop 3 ◦Stored as chemical energy in Bonds! ◦Transformed into different types of energy ◦ converted from one form to another

Equations 1- photosynthesis - chloroplast 2- Cellular respiration - mitochondria - opposite of photosynthesis

1- 6CO2 + 6 H2O = C6H12O6 + 6 O2 - this process creates sugars for plants using chloroplast 2- C6H12O6 + 6 O2 = 6 CO2 + 6 H2O - this process breaks down sugars to release energy (ATP) for plants and animals using mitochondria

1- How can you avoid the Freshman 15? 2- What is the typical minimum calories you need a day (hint: BMR)? 3- What type of respiration does an athlete use during the end of a marathon (mile 20)? 4- The first place where biological macromolecules like carbohydrates are actually broken down is in the _______ by _______, which is released from the ______. 5- Most nutrient absorption occurs in 6- An organism with a complete digestive tract ___________. 7- True or False: Plants take in food through their roots and store it in their leaves. 8- True or False: Soil provides most of the raw materials for photosynthesis. 9- True or False: Plants photosynthesize but not respire. 10-Consider the equation for Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O Carbon Dioxide is a byproduct of cellular respiration. Where does the Carbon in this Carbon Dioxide come from?

1- Decrease your portion sizes and increase your activities. 2- 1200 - 1400 Calories 3- Fermentation producing lactic acid 4- mouth; amylase; salivary glands 5- the small intestine. 6-has a distinct mouth and anus 7-False 8-False 9-False - Plants undergo BOTH photosynthesis AND cellular respiration (they have chloroplasts and mitochondria) 10 Carbohydrates /glucose in food - FYI: Oxygen leaves our body as water in our urine (we pee out what we breathe in!) -food we eat is what we breath out = carbon

1- Joseph Priestley 2- Jan Ingenhousz

1- English chemist who discovered oxygen, discovered that plants release oxygen 2- discovered that plants need sunlight to produce oxygen - both did an experiment where they put plants and domes and put candles in it to cut off oxygen supply - found that this was stunting the growth of some plants

Let's look at an experiment 1- a Flemish chemist, physiologist, and physician 2- five year tree experiment 3- The experiment: 4 prediction: 4.1- did the mass of the tree increase, decrease or stay the same? 4.2- Did the mass of the soil increase, decrease or stay the same?

1- J.B. Van Helmont (1577- 1644) 2- The first known quantitative experiment in biology - wanted to know what was happening as a tree grew 3- - planted a 5 pound Willow branch in a tub - tub contains 200 pounds of dry soil - plant only received rainwater - let willow grow for five years 4- 4.1- The mass or weight of the tree increase (169 lb) - The tree mess due to the rain water: 42 lbs 4.2- decreased - lost 2 oz (now was 199 lb 14 oz) - the tree mass due to minerals: about 2 oz 4.3- where did the other 126.8 lbs of this tree come from? - unaccounted from

The Human Digestive System Intakes food through the oral cavity Broken down and absorbed in the intestines

1- the upper digestive system, includes mouth, esophagus, and stomach, as well as enzymes and other chemicals secreted by salivary glands and the stomach 2 - mouth = teeth 3- esophagus= swallowed food, muscle contractions, stomach 4- stomach= acid, and pepsin producing chyme - turns 3D proteins into linear chains of amino acids making them more digestible by enzyme pepsin 5- small intestine= primary origin absorbs nutrients from foods and they enter circulatory system via blood vessels connected to small intestine - villi = inner surface of small I - blood vessels in villi - nutrients including food molecules 6- large intestine absorbs water and some nutrients and packets wastes material into stool - elimination = any left over material collected in rectum - absorption = as food matter goes through large I any water, salts, vitamins

Portion sizes

1- varies from one Society to another 2- sometimes there are more that are in serving per package 3- multiply calories per package

Digestion 1•Small Intestine: 2 •Large Intestine:

1-Absorbs nutrients (biomacromolecules, vitamins, minerals) from digested food 2 -Reabsorbs water -Packages waste into feces

Enzymes (1 and 2) 3-human bodies short term energy is stored as—-whereas, long-term energy is stored as—-

1-Proteins that speed up chemical reactions 2- also cuts or builds large molecules 3- carbohydrates; fats

1. Place the following structures of the digestive system in order from the entry of food (1) to the exit of waste (6). _____ Esophagus _____ Large intestine _____ Stomach _____ Mouth _____ Small intestine _____ Anus 2 Which part of the digestive tract has the most acidic pH? 3 Why is it helpful to have an expandable stomach?

1. mouth 2. Esophagus 3. Stomach 4. Small intestine 5. Large intestine 6. Anus 2 The stomach 3 You can eat more at one time than you can immediately process. The stomach will store food until there is room in the small intestine. If it weren't expandable, we would have to continuously eat small amounts of food

10 Given 1 g of each of the following, which would yield the greatest amount of ATP by aerobic respiration? 11 During aerobic respiration, what molecule has (and carries) electrons stripped from food molecules? 12 During aerobic respiration, how does NADH give up electrons to regenerate NAD+? 13 If you ingest carbon in the form of sugar and use it to generate ATP via cellular respiration, how is that carbon released from your body? 14 Compared to aerobic respiration, fermentation produces _____ ATP. 15 Which process is most directly prevented in the absence of adequate oxygen? 16 During fermentation, how does NADH give up electrons to regenerate NAD+? 17 Where in the cell does fermentation take place?

10 fat 11 NADH 12 by giving electrons to the electron transport chain 13 CO2 14 much less 15 electron transport chain 16 by giving electrons to pyruvate 17 cytoplasm

11 Compare and contrast the functions of bile salts and lipase. 12 Why would someone with a blocked duct between the pancreas and the small intestine experience pancreatic inflammation (pancreatitis)? Note that in this case inflammation is a response to tissue damage. 13 If you stand on your head, can processed food still pass from your small intestine into your large intestine? Explain your answer. 14 Gastric bypass surgery causes the _____________ to become ____________.

11 Answer: Both are involved in the processing of fats. Bile salts emulsify fats into small droplets that lipase can digest. 12 Answer: Digestive enzymes from the pancreas travel through the duct to reach the small intestine. If that duct is blocked, the digestive enzymes remain in the pancreas and begin to digest the pancreatic tissue 13 Answer: Yes. Food will still pass from the small intestine into the large intestine because the movement of food through the digestive tract is propelled by peristalsis, not gravity. 14 stomach ; smaller

12 The substrate of an enzyme is 13 Compare and contrast enzyme cofactors and coenzymes. 14 Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by 15 How is folate (folic acid) best described?

12 what the enzyme acts on. 13 Both help enzymes speed up their reaction rates. Cofactors are typically inorganic metals, while coenzymes are organic molecules, such as vitamins. 14 decreasing the activation energy. 15 as an organic cofactor (coenzyme) - Confusing as books definition of a cofactor is an "inorganic substance" but folate is a vitamin defined as an "organic molecule".

Equal (aspartame) versus sweeten low (saccharine) 1- stevia is plant-based, 0 cal 2- Splend

2- sucrose (double sugar) - Man made - starts with table sugar and then replace a part of a molecule with substitute chlorine 3- results - Splendor is 600 times sweeter then table sugar - our bodies do not absorb Splenda molecules - chloride change the shape of the molecule so that it fits better on our tongues and this makes it taste sweeter - no natural enzymes to break down double sugar therefore it is not digestible or absorbs - good for diabetics to help prevent blood sugar spikes

15 What is one similarity and one key difference between sleeve gastrectomy and gastric bypass?

15 -The two procedures differ in the way the new stomach pouch is created. -bypass: - With this procedure, also called Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, a small stomach pouch is created by removing, or "bypassing," most of your stomach and the first part of your small intestine. - The newly created stomach pouch is then reconnected to the remaining small intestine. - The bypassed part of the stomach is attached further down the small intestine, so it still provides the acid and digestive enzymes produced there. - The portion of your small intestine that's removed with your stomach normally absorbs some nutrients and calories. - Since this section is bypassed, the absorption of those calories doesn't happen, which contributes to your weight loss. - in gastric bypass, a small pouch at the top of the stomach is surgically created and surgery reroutes the food directly from the stomach to the portion of the small intestine - sleeve: - With gastric sleeve surgery, the surgeon permanently removes about 80 percent of your stomach. - What remains is sewn into a small banana-shaped stomach pouch. No other changes are made. - both: - Both gastric sleeve surgery and gastric bypass are usually done laparoscopically. This involves inserting a lighted scope with a camera called a laparoscope and other tools through several small incisions in your abdomen to perform the surgery - Both gastric sleeve surgery and gastric bypass reduce your stomach from its regular size to a small pouch. This causes weight loss in two ways: - the pouch fills up quickly so it restricts the amount of food you can eat before you feel full - the amount of ghrelin, commonly known as the "hunger hormone," is reduced

16 From what you've read in this chapter, are there any other benefits to gastric bypass besides weight loss? Explain your answer. 17 What is the difference between being obese and being morbid obese? (Clinical severe obese) Know BMI figures or both.

16 - Faster initial weight loss - Your body helps direct healthier food choices because of strong discomfort caused by eating sugars, fats and carbs - 96% of health problems related to obesity are completely resolved or reversed quickly -the surgery does lead to weight loss. -Weight-Loss Surgery Is Effective and Saves Lives -Also encouraging to some doctors is the finding that weight-loss surgery can reverse or prevent type 2 diabetes 17 Obese is weighing 20% or more than one's ideal body weight or having a bmi of 30 or higher. Morbid obesity which can also be known as clinically severe obesisty- is defined as being 100 pounds or more overweight or having a BMI of 40 or higher. Obesity becomes a "morbid" when it significantly increases the risk of one or more obesity related health conditions or serious diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes.

16 If the shape of an enzyme's active site were to change, what would happen to the reaction that the enzyme usually speeds up? 17 Considering the function of folate (folic acid) given in Infographic 4.6, why would you say pregnant women (and women who could become pregnant) should ensure that they have adequate levels of folate in their diets?

16 If the shape of the active site were to change, the reaction would likely decrease (or completely slow to 0). If the active site changes shape, the substrate cannot properly enter the active site, and the enzyme cannot catalyze the reaction. 17 Folate is essential for DNA replication, and DNA must be replicated every time a cell divides. An embryo (and later fetus) grows from a single fertilized egg through many rounds of cell division, each round adding new cells to the growing embryo. If the mother is folate deficient, the embryo will not grow properly, and so folate deficiency can lead to birth defects.

18 How much ATP is generated during fermentation?How does this compare to aerobic respiration? In humans, why can't fermentation sustain life?

18 2 molecules . during aerobic respiration 36 ATP are produced. Fermentation is a last resort for oxygen, like during exercise it is useful for the bursts of energy exerted.

2 How does molecular form influence function? 3 Why are trans-fats banned? 4 What's up with High Fructose Corn Syrup? 5 What are enzymes and what do they do?

2- Each molecule has a characteristic size and shape that determines its function in the living cell. - The shapes of molecules are determined by the positions of the atoms' orbitals. ... - Molecular shape is crucial in biology because of the way it determines how most molecules recognize and respond to each other. - The structure of a molecule determines whether bonds will be. polar or nonpolar. ... The structure of a molecule affects how it interacts with other. 3- -TRANS FAT is An unhealthful fat made from vegetable oil that has been chemically altered to make it solid at room temperature; often found in snack foods. -FDA Bans Artificial Trans Fats From Packaged and Restaurant Foods. In 2015, the FDA deemed artificial trans fats unsafe because of their link to heart attacks. 4- High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is a sweetener derived from corn syrup, which is processed from corn. - Similarly to regular table sugar (sucrose), it's composed of both fructose and glucose. - It is known, however, that too much added sugar of all kinds — not just high-fructose corn syrup — can contribute unwanted calories that are linked to health problems, such as weight gain, type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome and high triglyceride levels. All of these boost your risk of heart disease 5- Enzymes are proteins - They act as catalysts, which means that they make biochemical reactions happen faster than they would otherwise. - Without enzymes, those reactions simply would not occur or would run too slowly to sustain life. - For example, without enzymes, digestion would be impossible.

20 What do pepsin and salivary amylase have in common? How do their activities differ? 21 what type of movement involves moving molecules from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration, does this require energy? 22 what types of movement involve moving molecules from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration, does this require energy? 23 what is the name of the major lipid-digesting enzyme? What organ secretes this enzyme? 24 where are bile salts made & stored?

20 Both digestive enzymes. Pepsin digests proteins in the stomach, an environment with an acidic pH. Salivary amylase digests carbohydrates in the mouth , an environment with a neutral pH. 21 simple diffusion & facilitated diffusion; no 22 active transport; yes 23 lipase, secreted by the pancreas 24 made: liver stored: gall bladder

Obesity is a medical condition defined as weighing ---or more than is recommended for one's height or having a body mass index (BMI) of ---or higher Morbid obesity—sometimes called clinically severe obesity—is defined as being ----pounds or more overweight or having a BMI of ---or higher. Obesity becomes "morbid" when it significantly increases the risk of one or more obesity-related health conditions or serious diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes.

20% 30 100 40

5 Which type of organic molecule serves as long-term energy storage in humans? 6 Which part of an ATP molecule is associated with its ability to store energy? 7 If you exercise for an extended period of time, you will use energy first from _____, then from _____. 8 Which process is not correctly matched with its cellular location? a glycolysis—cytoplasm b citric acid cycle—mitochondria c glycolysis—mitochondria d electron transport—mitochondria e none of the above; they are all correctly matched 9 In the presence of oxygen we use _____ to fuel ATP production. What process do plants use to fuel ATP production from their stored sugars?

5 fats (triglycerides) 6 the phosphate groups 7 glycogen; fats 8 glycolysis—mitochondria 9 aerobic respiration; aerobic respiration

4 What do the gallbladder, liver, and pancreas have in common with respect to the digestive system? How do they differ from the mouth, stomach, and small intestine? 5 Muscle paralysis in the digestive tract would compromise which digestive function? 6 Pepsin is most effective at a pH of about 2. Digestive enzymes in the small intestine are most effective at a pH of or near 7. If the pancreas were unable to secrete bicarbonate (the basic component of pancreatic juice that neutralizes acid), what would you predict about the waste eliminated from the large intestine?

4 They all send digestive substances to the duodenum. - The liver digests food by producing bile to break down fats, removing toxins and breaking down and storing some vitamins and minerals. The pancreas produces enzymes to help break down proteins, fats and carbohydrates. The gall bladder stores the bile that is produced by the liver -The mouth, stomach, and small intestine, however, all help in the process of food digestion. The mouth introduces enzymes in the saliva, the stomach introduces pepsin, and the small intestine introduces a number of other enzymes for digestion of macromolecules. 5 Movement of food from the mouth to the stomach. 6 Answer: If the pancreas were unable to secrete bicarbonate, the acidic chyme from the stomach would not be neutralized (it would remain acidic). The digestive enzymes of the small intestine cannot work at this pH, so the digestion that normally takes place in the small intestine would not occur. As a result, eliminated waste would contain food that is only partially digested.

6 What are the organs and functions of the digestive system?

6- The main organs that make up the digestive system (in order of their function) are the; - mouth, -The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts before you even take a bite. Your salivary glands get active -esophagus, -Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from your mouth when you swallow. - A series of muscular contractions within the esophagus called peristalsis delivers food to your stomach. - stomach, - The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed with stomach enzymes. - These enzymes continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. - Cells in the lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the breakdown process. - small intestine, -Made up of three segments -- the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum -- the small intestine is a 22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver - The duodenum is the first segment of the small intestine. It's largely responsible for the continuous breaking-down process. - large intestine, -The large intestine, or colon, is responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowels is easy and convenient. It's a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum. - Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. - rectum - The rectum is a straight, 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. The rectum's job is to receive stool from the colon, let you know that there is stool to be evacuated (pooped out) and to hold the stool until evacuation - anus- The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper anus is able to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas or solid. - Helping them along the way are the - pancreas- The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum that break down protein, fats and carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes insulin, passing it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone in your body for metabolizing sugar. - gall bladder- The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile from the liver, and then releases it into the duodenum in the small intestine to help absorb and digest fats. - liver.- The liver has many functions, but its main job within the digestive system is to process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat and some vitamins.

7 How is food broken down and utilized as it moves through the digestive tract? 8 What are the risks and benefits of bariatric surgery? 9 What is BMI? 10 How do we get energy? 11 What is the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? 12 How does beer get its alcohol?

7- As food passes through the GI tract, it mixes with digestive juices, causing large molecules of food to break down into smaller molecules. The body then absorbs these smaller molecules through the walls of the small intestine into the bloodstream, which delivers them to the rest of the body. 8- - Benifits- - For some morbidly obese people, however, the risk of dying from obesity-related diseases is higher than the risk of surgical complications. -Because the surgery so drastically reduces the size of the stomach and restricts how much a person can eat, it amounts to "forced behavior control," since patients must live on a strict diet, - Almost all patients lose 30% to 50% of their excess weight in the first 6 months and 77% of their excess weight after about a year. - Studies show that even 10 years after surgery, most patients still weigh 25% to 30% less than they did before the surgery. - improvement in related medical conditions, including High blood pressure and Type 2 Diabetes - -Weight-Loss Surgery Is Effective and Saves Lives -Risk -some bariatric surgery patients suffer mineral and vitamin deficiencies over the long term that cause bone loss and potentially other health impairments. - as many as 20% of patients suffer complications a year after the surgery that are severe enough to put them back in the hospital. - Possible complications include ulcers, malnutrition, re-hospitalization, and even death - There is no guarantee the surgery will be successful - if diet guidelines are not followed, the weight could return - - There are financial costs, too: the surgery runs anywhere from $11,000 to $26,000, and it's not always covered by insurance. 9- Definitions of healthy and unhealthy amounts of body fat are based on a tool called the body mass index (BMI), which provides an easy-to-digest estimate of body fat based on one's height and weight 10- Energy is delivered to the body through the foods we eat and liquids we drink. Foods contain a lot of stored chemical energy; when you eat, your body breaks down these foods into smaller components and absorbs them to use as fuel. Energy comes from the three main nutrients carbohydrates, protein, and fats, with carbohydrates being the most important energy source. 11- - Aerobic, -Reactants = Glucose and oxygen, -Products = ATP, water, CO2_22​, -Location = Cytoplasm (glycolysis) and mitochondria, - Stages = Glycolysis (anaerobic), Krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation - ATP produced = Large amount (36 ATP) - Anaerobic - Reactants = Glucose - Products = ATP and lactic acid (animals); or ATP, ethanol, and CO2_22​start subscript, 2, end subscript (yeast) -Location = Cytoplasm - Stages = Glycolysis, fermentation - ATP produced = Small amount (2 ATP) 12 - The simplest approach to make a higher alcohol beer is to add more sugar during fermentation. During beer's fermentation process, yeast eats the sugar made from malted grain and then converts it into alcohol and CO2. If there is more available sugar, the yeast has more food to eat, which produces more alcohol.

9 Process of Photosynthesis 10 Carbon fixation 11 During aerobic respiration, what molecule has (and carries) electrons stripped from food? 12 During aerobic respiration, how does NADH give up electrons to regenerate NAD+? 13 What process is most directly prevented in the absence of adequate oxygen?

9 Water split - oxygen byproduct • Photons of light are absorbed by chlorophyll • Electrons in the chlorophyll atoms become "excited" • Excited electrons help generate an energy-carrying molecule known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) • ATP is used to make sugar 10 Conversion of inorganic gaseous carbon into an organic molecule 11 NADH 12 by giving electrons to the electron transport chain 13 electron transport train

9 Our bodies cannot synthesize vitamin C, but require it. Therefore, vitamin C is 10 Which component of peanut butter RUTF supplies essential amino acids? 11 Corn lacks the essential amino acids isoleucine and lysine. Beans lack the essential amino acids tryptophan and methionine. Soy contains all the essential amino acids. a - Could someone survive on a diet with a corn-based protein alone? Why or why not? b - Why do many traditional diets combine corn (e.g., in tortillas) with beans? c - Why did one of the home-based feeding therapies in Malawi combine soy flour with corn flour?

9 an essential micronutrient 10 milk powder 11 a- No. They would be lacking the essential amino acids isoleucine and lysine, which our bodies cannot make. b- Traditional diets that combine corn and beans (e.g., in a meal of tortillas and beans) provide all the essential amino acids. The beans provide the essential amino acids lacking in corn, and the corn provides the essential amino acids lacking in beans. c- Corn and soy are traditional foods in Malawi, and so would be familiar. Also, while soy contains all the essential amino acids, the starchy corn flour adds another source of carbohydrates.

18 6. Stomach A. What is the appropriate pH of stomach acid? B. Give 2 reasons for the stomach being a very acid environment C. Pepsin is one of the major digestive enzymes of the stomach. What does it do? D. What prevents the stomach from digesting itself? E. How does an ulcer form? F. What are 3 things that the stomach can absorb directly into the bloodstream?

A. 1 B . It destroys harmful bacteria and protects us against food borne diseases. C. Pepsin chemically breaks proteins apart into individual amino acids. D. The stomach is lined with a thick layer of protective mucus. E. Occasionally this mucus layer is damaged and the stomach lining becomes more vulnerable to gastric juices, the result is a painful sore caused an ulcer. F. Water, ethanol and certain drugs.

19 The cell membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell A. What type(s) of movements involve moving molecules from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration? Does this require energy? B. What type(s) of movement involve moving molecules from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration? Does this require energy?

A. Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. No it doesn't require energy. B. Active transport... Yes it requires energy.

An estimate of body fat based on height and weight. Having a BMI of 25 or more but less than 30. Having 20% more body fat than is recommended for one's height, as measured by a body mass index equal to or greater than 30. A calorie (spelled with a lower-case "c") is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C.

BODY MASS INDEX (BMI) OVERWEIGHT OBESE calorie

A Calorie (spelled with a capital "C") is 1,000 calories or 1 kilocalorie (kcal). The Calorie is the common unit of energy used in food nutrition labels. Non-exercise activity thermogenesis, the amount of energy expended in everyday activities. The molecule that cells use to power energy-requiring functions. A series of reactions that occurs in the presence of oxygen and converts energy stored in food into ATP.

Calorie NEAT ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Nutrients that can't be made by the body, and so must be obtained from the diet. A complex plant carbohydrate made of linked chains of glucose molecules; a source of stored energy. Amino acids that can't be made by the body, and so must be obtained pre-assembled from the diet. Any chemical reaction that breaks down complex molecules into simpler molecules.

ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS STARCH ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS CATABOLIC REACTION

A series of chemical reactions beginning with glycolysis and taking place in the absence of oxygen. Fermentation produces far less ATP than does aerobic respiration. A complex animal carbohydrate, made up of linked chains of glucose molecules, that stores energy for short-term use. A type of lipid found in fat cells that stores excess energy for long-term use.

FERMENTATION GLYCOGEN TRIGLYCERIDES

CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY

Food is a source of nutrients. Nutrients provide the chemicals required to build and maintain cells and the energy cells need to function. Macronutrients are nutrients required in large amounts. Micronutrients are nutrients required in smaller amounts. Both are essential for good health. Macronutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, including dietary fats; these are among the organic macromolecules that make up our cells. Digestion breaks down macromolecules into smaller subunits, which are then used by cells to build cell structures and carry out cell functions. Enzymes are proteins that accelerate the rate of chemical reactions. Nearly all reactions in the body require enzymes, including those reactions required for growth and development. Enzymes speed up reactions by binding specifically to substrates and reducing the activation energy necessary for a reaction to occur. Enzymes mediate both bond-breaking (catabolic) and bond-building (anabolic) reactions. Many enzymes require small "helper" chemicals called cofactors to function. Micronutrients such as minerals and vitamins, found abundantly in fruits and vegetables, are important cofactors (referred to as coenzymes in the case of vitamins). Eating a balanced diet that contains abundant quantities of fruits and vegetables is the best way to ensure proper nutrition. Malnutrition results when adequate macronutrients or micronutrients are lacking in the diet. Malnutrition is especially dangerous for children, whose bodies are, or should be, growing rapidly.

---, a polymer of glucose, is the ---found in ---cells. It's essentially a ---. When we require short bursts of energy—in a sprint, for example—the body breaks down glycogen into its component glucose molecules, and uses those in aerobic respiration to obtain usable energy (ATP). -Glycogen and Fat ---- However, because a gram of glycogen stores only half as many Calories as a gram of fat (about 4 Calories per gram versus 9), our bodies would have to carry around twice as much ---to store the same amount of energy So our bodies store most excess energy as triglycerides in fat cells, which actually allows us to carry around less weight overall. The body burns this fat only after it has already used up food molecules in the bloodstream and used up its stored glycogen

Glycogen energy-storing carbohydrate animal short-term storage system Store Excess Calories glycogen

bread

Kneading ◦Flour, Yeast, and Water Together - Rising ◦Creates CO2Bubbles and alcohol byproducts - Baking ◦Burns Alcohol - No alcohol in the finished product.

The medical condition resulting from the lack of essential nutrients in the diet. Malnutrition is often, but not always, associated with starvation. Components in food that the body needs to grow, develop, and repair itself. The ability to do work, including the work of building complex molecules. Nutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, that organisms must ingest in large amounts to maintain health

MALNUTRITION NUTRIENTS ENERGY MACRONUTRIENTS

Nutrients, including vitamins and minerals, that organisms must ingest in small amounts to maintain health. An organic molecule required in small amounts for normal growth, reproduction, and tissue maintenance. An inorganic substance, such as a metal ion, required to activate an enzyme. A small organic molecule, such as a vitamin, required to activate an enzyme.

MICRONUTRIENTS VITAMIN COFACTOR COENZYME

An expandable muscular organ that stores and mechanically breaks down food. Specific enzymes in the stomach digest proteins. The organ system that breaks down food molecules into smaller subunits, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste; it is composed of the digestive tract and accessory organs. The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into subunits, enabling the absorption of nutrients. Glands that secrete enzymes into the mouth to break down macromolecules in food. One such enzyme is salivary amylase, which digests carbohydrates.

STOMACH DIGESTIVE SYSTEM DIGESTION SALIVARY GLANDS

A molecule to which an enzyme binds and on which the enzyme acts. The part of an enzyme that binds to a substrate. The energy required for a chemical reaction to proceed. Enzymes accelerate reactions by reducing their activation energy. An inorganic chemical element required by organisms for normal growth, reproduction, and tissue maintenance; examples are calcium, iron, potassium, and zinc.

SUBSTRATE ACTIVE SITE ACTIVATION ENERGY MINERAL

CHAPTER 27 SUMMARY

The digestive system is composed of a central digestive tract and accessory organs. Its function is to break down food molecules into smaller subunits, absorb nutrients, and eliminate waste. Digestion begins in the mouth, where teeth chew food and the tongue compresses food and pushes it to the back of the mouth (mechanical digestion) and salivary enzymes begin breaking down carbohydrates (chemical digestion). Food passes from the mouth into the stomach through the esophagus, propelled by waves of muscular contractions called peristalsis. The stomach is muscular and acidic and contains pepsin, a protein-digesting enzyme. It is elastic and can expand after a large meal to store food for a few hours Food processed in the stomach is called chyme. Chyme passes into the small intestine, where enzymes further digest it. Enzymes from the pancreas help to digest organic molecules in the small intestine. Bile salts, produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder, emulsify fats and help the body digest them. The small intestine absorbs the broken-down products of food; once absorbed, food molecules enter the bloodstream and are transported throughout the body. The large intestine absorbs water and forms solid stool from indigestible matter in food such as fiber. Humans and many other animals have a complete digestive tract—one with a mouth and an anus. Not all organisms have a complete digestive tract; many have no digestive tract at all.

CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY

The macronutrients in our food (proteins, carbohydrates, and fats) are sources of dietary energy. Fats are the most energy-rich organic molecules in our diet. Fats contain twice as many Calories per gram as carbohydrates and proteins. When we consume more Calories than we use, our bodies store the excess energy in the bonds of glycogen in muscle and liver cells, and of triglycerides in fat cells. Cells carry out chemical reactions that break down food to obtain usable energy in the form of ATP. In the presence of oxygen, aerobic respiration produces large amounts of ATP from the energy stored in food. Aerobic respiration occurs in three stages: (1) glycolysis, (2) the citric acid cycle, and (3) electron transport. The first stage occurs in the cytoplasm, the latter two in the mitochondria. Electron transport produces the bulk of ATP. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation follows glycolysis and produces lactic acid in animals (or, in some organisms, alcohol). Fermentation produces far less ATP than does aerobic respiration. Activity—both intentional exercise and NEAT—helps burn stored Calories. A combination of eating fewer Calories and being active will result in weight loss. During exercise, glycogen is used first. Stored fats are tapped only when glycogen stores have been depleted, as may occur during long periods of exercise. The ultimate source of energy in food is the sun. Photosynthesizers such as plants trap the energy of sunlight and convert it into the chemical energy of sugar. Animals then eat this sugar either directly or indirectly. Both plants and animals can use this sugar as an energy source for aerobic cellular respiration. Photosynthesis and respiration form a cycle: the carbon dioxide given off by animals, plants, and all organisms that perform aerobic respiration is used by photosynthesizers to make glucose and oxygen during photosynthesis.

6 A typical multivitamin supplement contains vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K, vitamin B1, vitamin B2, vitamin B6, biotin, calcium, iron, magnesium, zinc, selenium, copper, manganese, and chromium. Explain your answers to the following questions. a- Are all of these vitamins? If there are ingredients that are not vitamins, what are they? b- Are all of these micronutrients? 7 What subunits are proteins broken down into during digestion? 8 Where (or how) do we obtain essential amino acids?

a- Not all of these are vitamins. Calcium, iron, magnesium, zinc, selenium, copper, manganese and chromium are minerals. b- Yes. They are all micronutrients (nutrients needed only in small quantities in the diet). 7 amino acids 8 from protein in our diet

In order for the energy released from food molecules to be useful to the body, it has to be captured in a form that can participate in the cell's chemical reactions. That form is a molecule called ---- To make ATP, our bodies first break down food molecules into their smaller subunits by ----: carbohydrates into sugars, fats into fatty acids and glycerol, proteins into amino acids. Once released from food, these subunits leave the ---and enter the ---, which transports them to the body's cells. Inside the cells, enzymes break apart the bonds holding these subunits together. The energy stored in those bonds is then captured and transferred into the chemical bonds that make up ATP. When cells need energy, they ---, releasing the stored energy, which can then participate in chemical reactions. -ATP is the energetic equivalent of bills and coins; it's currency that your body can actually spend - ATP: ---

adenosine triphosphate (ATP). digestion small intestine bloodstream break these bonds in ATP The Energy Currency of Cells

One of the main reasons that peanut butter RUTF—which locals call chiponde, or "nutpaste"—is more effective than standard therapy is that it can be ---at home. When children are malnourished, their immune systems aren't functioning at optimal levels, which means that hospitals are often the worst place for them to be because of the risk of infection from other sick patients. Peanut butter RUTF is also something that children can eat on their own, without help from their parents. And, because they clearly like the taste of it (one doctor described it as tasting like the inside of a Reese's Peanut Butter Cup), they gobble it up.

administered safely

How does aerobic respiration extract useful energy from food? The primary process that eukaryotic organisms—animals, plants, fungi, and protists—use to convert food energy into ATP is called ---, or just ----. " -Aerobic Respiration Transfers Food Energy to ATP "Aerobic" means "in the ---," and, as the term suggests, this process requires a continual source of oxygen. Sugars, fats, and amino acids from our diets can all be burned in aerobic respiration to make ---. For simplicity, we focus here on glucose, which is the most common fuel source for all organisms, from bacteria to humans. During aerobic respiration of glucose, oxygen is consumed, energy is released and captured in the bonds of ATP, and carbon dioxide is given off as waste

aerobic cellular respiration, aerobic respiration presence of oxygen ATP

Likewise, different activities require different amounts of energy. Jogging, for example, burns about 500 Calories an hour, whereas sitting burns only about 5 Calories per hour. Deliberate exercise makes up a relatively small portion of our total daily energy expenditure By far, the largest portion is made up of our ----—the many thousands of chemical reactions that keep our cells and organs functioning, and us alive.

basal metabolism - Basal Metabolic Rate is the number of calories required to keep your body functioning at rest. BMR is also known as your body's metabolism; therefore, any increase to your metabolic weight, such as exercise, will increase your BMR - To get your BMR, simply input your height, gender, age and weigh

How is obesity defined, and what are some hypotheses proposed to explain current obesity rates? Obesity—having an unhealthy amount of ---—has been called America's number one health crisis. Obesity has been linked to a whole host of health problems, including heart disease, diabetes, stroke, Alzheimer's disease, hypertension, and even cancer. It is also a major killer: in the United States, only ---use causes more premature deaths. Rates of obesity have skyrocketed over the past four decades, leading many to refer to an "---." As of 2017, more than one-third of U.S. adults are obese, and another third are overweight. Rates in children are not far behind - Body Mass Index and Increasing Obesity Rates Is increased food intake—linked perhaps to larger portion sizes on menus and in supermarkets—mostly to blame? Or is decreased energy expenditure—a result of our increasingly sedentary lifestyle—the bigger player? No one can say for sure. -So is overeating the cause of our obesity epidemic? Are we simply being goaded into eating more food than we used to, and paying the price in bigger waistbands? -Scientists are also divided about how to best curtail this growing epidemic.

body fat tobacco obesity epidemic

Definitions of healthy and unhealthy amounts of body fat are based on a tool called the ----which provides an easy-to-digest estimate of body fat based on one's height and weight. People with a BMI between ---are considered to be at a healthy weight; people with a BMI between ---are considered overweight; people with a BMI of ----are considered obese; and people with a BMI of ---are considered extremely obese. -Humanetics, a crash test dummy developer, is increasing the size of some of its models to reflect our growing girth as Americans

body mass index (BMI), 19 and 24 25 and 29 30 and above 40 or above

How does the body use the energy in food? Energy, defined as the ----, is what powers our biological lives. We obtain energy from the food we eat, and this energy fuels all of our activities—everything from thinking and digesting to sleeping and running. Obesity is fundamentally a problem of ---: taking in, over time, much more energy than we expend in our activities.

capacity to do work energy imbalance

What are the macronutrients and micronutrients provided by food? The macronutrients in our diet include ----,---,---(a type of lipid)—three of the four organic macromolecules Because most foods contain mixtures of these macronutrients, those of us who eat a ----diet that includes vegetables, oils, grains, meat, and dairy products can easily obtain all the macronutrients our bodies need Macronutrients ---and--- Micronutrients are one of the major groups of nutrients your body needs. They include ---and---. - Vitamins are necessary for --- - Meanwhile, minerals play an important role in ---

carbohydrates, proteins, and fats varied Build and Maintain Cells vitamins and minerals - energy production, immune function, blood clotting and other functions. - growth, bone health, fluid balance and several other processes.

Once digested into their smallest subunits, food molecules are taken up—absorbed—by ---. The lining of the small intestine is folded into finger-like projections called ---that greatly increase the surface area through which the intestine can absorb nutrients. The food molecules then pass into blood vessels of the ----, and the bloodstream transports them throughout the body, where they are a source of nutrients to build and maintain cells - The Small Intestine Absorbs Nutrients

cells lining the small intestine villi circulatory system

What are enzymes, how do they work, and how do they contribute to reactions of metabolism? Growth and development are essentially a series of ----requiring nutrients as starting materials. These reactions begin as soon as the digestion of food begins. Reactions that break down larger structures into smaller ones are ---reactions. Reactions that build new structures from smaller subunits are ---reactions. Together, all the chemical reactions occurring in the body constitute the body's metabolism. To proceed normally, metabolic chemical reactions require the assistance of helper proteins called ---. Nearly every chemical reaction in the body requires enzymes in order for it to happen at a rate that is fast enough to keep up with the needs of a living organism. For example, digestive enzymes made by cells in the digestive tract help us digest food molecules into their constituent subunits. In the absence of such digestive enzymes, food molecules would remain stable and intact; they would not break down spontaneously at a rate that would suit our metabolic needs.

chemical reactions catabolic anabolic enzymes

Humans and many other animals have what's known as a ----—one shaped like a tube, with two openings: a ---and ---. Not all organisms have such a tubelike digestive tract. In fact, many organisms have no digestive tract at all and yet are still able to obtain and process food from their environment. Take fungi, for example. Fungi are eukaryotic organisms. Some, such as yeasts, are unicellular, while the majority are multicellular. Multicellular fungi have bodies that are made up of microscopic filaments called hyphae. Their bodies do not have distinct organs or organ systems, and they do not have digestive tracts. To obtain nutrients, fungi extend hyphae into food—a piece of bread, say, or leaf litter in a forest. Individual hypha cells then release digestive enzymes directly into the food and absorb the digested nutrients directly. Since digestion occurs outside their bodies, fungi do not need a stomach or a mouth, or even a digestive tract. Rather, each cell can absorb the products of this external digestion directly. -Fungi Digest Food Externally As another example, consider sea anemones, invertebrate animals that live in the oceans, attached to surfaces such as rocks. Sea anemones digest their food internally, but they don't have a digestive tract like humans. Rather, they have a single, multifunctional digestive cavity where digestion and absorption of nutrients take place. Sea anemones capture food and shove it into this cavity using the tentacles that surround their mouths. The cavity has only one opening—the mouth—through which food enters and wastes exit. This is an example of an incomplete digestive tract, in contrast to our own complete digestive tract in which food flows one way from the mouth to the anus. -Sea Anemones Have an Incomplete Digestive Tract

complete digestive tract mouth and an anus

- NEAT includes all the activities of ---, such as household chores, yard work, shopping, going to a job, walking the dog, or playing a musical instrument. It also includes the energy expended to maintain posture, and it includes spontaneous movements such as fidgeting, pacing, or even chewing gum. - changes in NEAT were inversely correlated with ---: participants who increased their NEAT the most gained the lowest amount of fat. In other words, NEAT accounted for how these individuals resisted fat gain. "People who are resistant to weight gain and can stay thin are people who can switch on their NEAT in response to overfeeding and never gain a pound," Levine says -NEAT Activities Influence Resistance to Fat Gain and Obesity - Do lean and obese people differ in their levels of NEAT, for example? - To measure NEAT, Levine and colleagues devised a novel way to track activity levels in test participants. They built a special kind of undergarment outfitted with electronic sensors that detect movement. The undergarment, which Levine calls "magic underwear," was built to allow people to wear it essentially all the time—even while going to the bathroom and having sex. - To study NEAT, Levine employs what he calls "magic underwear"—specially designed undergarments with sensors that detect movement - the energy we expend in everyday activities—our NEAT—is far more important in controlling weight than anyone previously imagined. And, they suggest that a good way to combat obesity would be to get people up out of their chairs.

daily living fat gain

Aerobic respiration is a three-stage process that takes place in different parts of the cell. part 1 - The first stage, ----, takes place in the ----. Glycolysis is a series of chemical reactions that splits ----in half, into two smaller molecules of ---. The pyruvate molecules then enter the cell's ---. part 2 - During the second stage, the ----, a series of reactions strips electrons from the bonds between the ---and---atoms that were originally in glucose and are now in pyruvate. In the process, the pyruvate is broken down into smaller and smaller ---and eventually exhaled as carbon dioxide from the lungs. As the energy-rich bonds in glucose and pyruvate are broken, some of the energy released is used to make a small amount of ----. The rest of the energy is stored in electrons released from the broken bonds. These electrons are picked up by a molecule called ---- When NAD+ picks up electrons, it becomes ---(the electron-carrying form of the molecule). NADH then carries the electrons to the ---of the mitochondria, where NADH gives them up (reverting to NAD+). The electrons then go through the third and last stage of aerobic respiration: the ---. part 3- During electron transport, the energetic electrons are passed like hot potatoes down a ---in the ---. As electrons pass down the chain, they release their stored energy, which is used to power reactions that form many molecules of ---. Eventually the electrons are passed to oxygen molecules, which combine with hydrogen atoms to produce ---

glycolysis cell's cytoplasm glucose pyruvate mitochondria citric acid cycle carbon and hydrogen carbon-based molecules ATP NAD+. NADH inner membrane electron transport chain chain of molecules inner mitochondrial membrane ATP water

Fermentation does not actually produce any more ATP beyond what is produced by glycolysis, so you might wonder: why do cells do it? In essence, it's a way to keep ---running. As glucose is converted to pyruvate in glycolysis, glucose gives up electrons to --- In the absence of ---, NADH cannot unload its electrons to the electron transport chain, and therefore after a while, there is no NAD+ available to pick up electrons from glucose (since all the NAD will be in the NADH form). Soon glycolysis will stop making ATP unless there is some way for the cell to regenerate NAD+. This is what fermentation does. In fermentation, NADH unloads its ---onto pyruvate (making lactic acid), thus regenerating NAD+ and allowing glycolysis to continue

glycolysis NAD+. oxygen electrons

Once chyme passes through the small intestine, it moves on to the ---, or colon, which functions like a trash compactor—holding and compressing material that the body can't use or digest, such as plant fiber. Within the large intestine, fiber, small amounts of water, vitamins, and other substances mixed with mucus and bacteria that normally live in the large intestine. As this waste travels through the large intestine, most of the water and some vitamins and minerals are ---into the body through the intestinal lining. Bacteria chemically break down some of the fiber to produce nutrients for their own survival and also to provide valuable ----, which is one reason ---is an important dietary nutrient. As the large intestine expands and contracts, it creates stool, which is pushed into the rectum and eliminated from the body through the anus

large intestine reabsorbed vitamins fiber

Whereas proteins and carbohydrates are easily digested by this powerful mixture of digestive enzymes, fats pose a special challenge. Because they are hydrophobic fats don't mix well with the watery solutions in the small intestine. This makes it difficult for fat-digesting enzymes to break them down. Helping the process along, the ---secretes bile salts, which are chemically suited to dividing large hydrophobic fat globules into smaller droplets—that is, to emulsifying them. These bile salts pass from the liver into the ---, which stores them for future use. When we eat a high-fat meal, bile salts pass from the gallbladder into the ---, where they help emulsify the fats. Once the fats are emulsified, the enzyme ---, secreted by the pancreas, chemically breaks them down to release their constituent fatty acids and glycerol -Accessory Organs and the Small Intestine Work Together to Digest Food

liver gallbladder duodenum lipase

How is food broken down and utilized as it moves through the digestive tract? Digestion—the breaking down of food molecules—relies on both ---and--- processes. These begin as soon as we put food into our mouths—that is, as soon as we ingest it. The act of -----mechanically breaks food down into smaller pieces, while ----secrete enzymes into saliva that chemically dismantle macromolecules into their subunits. The enzyme salivary amylase, for example, breaks down carbohydrates into simpler sugars. The tongue ----the food into a ball and works it to the back of the mouth. When we swallow, food is propelled along the ----by rhythmic waves of muscle contractions called peristalsis. Food then enters the stomach, where stomach acid destroys harmful bacteria and protects us against food-borne diseases Stomach acid also causes proteins in food to lose their ---, turning them into linear chains of amino acids. This makes it easier for the ----, which is produced in the stomach, to chemically break proteins apart into individual amino acids. Like the esophagus, the stomach is ---, expanding and contracting as it accepts food and churns it. Each time it contracts, stomach acid mixes with food, producing a soupy mixture called chyme

mechanical and chemical chewing salivary glands compresses esophagus three-dimensional shapes enzyme pepsin muscular

The rationale behind bariatric surgery is simple: by reducing the amount of food the stomach can hold, the surgeries prevent ---. Reducing the amount of food taken in means less food is digested, fewer calories are absorbed into the body, and eventually, weight is lost The stomach is an easy target for a surgical fix to overeating because it's relatively simple to reduce its size surgically. But care must be taken to make sure that the rest of the digestive system still works as it's supposed to—breaking down food molecules into smaller subunits, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste.

overeating

Aerobic respiration requires a steady supply of ---, which is transported to cells of the body in blood traveling from the lungs. Occasionally, when we perform very strenuous activities, the rate at which oxygen can be delivered to muscles is lower than the rate at which oxygen is ---.

oxygen consumed

Why is food so scarce? Malawi is one of the ---countries in the world, with a population of mostly ---farmers. The primary agricultural crops are corn and soybeans. Farmers also grow commercial cash crops for export, including tobacco, sugar cane, coffee, and tea. But agriculture is not easy in Malawi. Rain comes only once a year, from December to March when it might rain every day. Quite often, supplies from the previous year's harvest run out before the next one is in. Locals call this time of food insecurity "----."

poorest subsistence the hungry season

Which subunits are released by the digestion of proteins?

protines make enzymes and structural protines

Because a healthful diet requires a balance of many different kinds of nutrient, it's not only the sheer ----of food that is important, but also the specific ---that matters. Some nutrients can be missing from a diet, even if a child is otherwise well fed

quantity type of food

How does bariatric surgery change the digestive tract and digestion, and what are the risks and benefits of bariatric surgery? bariatric surgery changes the anatomy of the digestive system to limit the amount of food a person can eat and digest before feeling full. Of the different types of bariatric surgery, ---is currently the most common, followed by ---. Both of these dramatically reduce the size of the stomach. - After having gastric bypass, patients must reduce food portion size. Since her surgery, this patient can comfortably eat only about a half cup of food at a time—even at Thanksgiving (plate on the left). - Eating too much at once can cause vomiting or intense stomach pain. - Moreover, patients must stick to a special diet after the surgery or suffer other unpleasant consequences -If they eat too many simple carbohydrates, the carbs enter the small intestine too quickly. This effect, called gastric dumping, causes nausea and diarrhea. - There are financial costs, too: the surgery runs anywhere from $11,000 to $26,000, and it's not always covered by insurance. -But the surgery does lead to weight loss. -Weight-Loss Surgery Is Effective and Saves Lives -Also encouraging to some doctors is the finding that weight-loss surgery can reverse or prevent type 2 diabetes

sleeve gastrectomy gastric bypass

Enzymes work by ---or---, chemical reactions—a process called catalysis. In order to accelerate a chemical reaction, an enzyme must bind to the molecules involved in the reaction. The molecules that enzymes bind to are called ----. The part of the enzyme that binds to a substrate is called its ----. Each enzyme has an active site that fits only one particular substrate molecule or molecules, making each enzyme ---for the reaction that it catalyzes. Given the thousands of reactions occurring in organisms, organisms have to produce and rely on the activity of thousands of different enzymes, each catalyzing a specific reaction. The digestion of a cheeseburger, for example, requires a variety of different digestive enzymes, some that specifically digest protein, some that digest carbohydrates, and one that digests fat.

speeding up, or catalyzing substrates active site specific

What are the consequences of a diet lacking sufficient nutrients? If a child doesn't get enough to eat, the enzymes that carry out the anabolic reactions necessary for growth do not have ---upon which to act, so these ----reactions cannot occur. What's more, in a malnourished child, catabolic reactions will begin to break down ---to obtain amino acids needed for other purposes. The results are the telltale signs of malnutrition: thin arms with skin wrinkling over wasted muscle; painful swelling of the legs and feet caused by a buildup of fluid; blond or rust-colored hair resulting from a deficiency of protein; and a distended, bloated stomach.

substrates anabolic muscle protein

For some morbidly obese people, however, the risk of dying from obesity-related diseases is higher than the risk of ---. And for weight reduction, surgery is more effective than lifestyle changes alone. Almost all patients lose ---to-- of their excess weight in the first 6 months and 77% of their excess weight after about a year. Studies show that even 10 years after surgery, most patients still weigh 25% to 30% less than they did before the surgery. . Consequently, demand for surgery has soared in the United States since the early 2000s, peaking at about 220,000 surgeries a year in 2009, and today hovering around 180,000 per year.

surgical complications 30% to 50%

BMR (basal metabolic rate)

the rate at which energy is used to keep the body alive when in a rested and fasting state - The basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of energy needed while resting in a temperate environment when the digestive system is inactive. It is the equivalent of figuring out how much gas an idle car consumes while parked. In such a state, energy will be used only to maintain vital organs, which include the heart, lungs, kidneys, nervous system, intestines, liver, lungs, sex organs, muscles, and skin. For most people, upwards of ~70% of total energy (calories) burned each day is due to upkeep. Physical activity makes up ~20% of expenditure and ~10% is used for the digestion of food, also known as thermogenesis.

food is a source of energy - Calories in = Calories out - Not everyone burns Calories at the same rate

•BMR -Basal Metabolic Rate •http://www.myfitnesspal.com/tools/bmr-calculator •In general, people need to consume at least 1200-1400 calories a day just to exist

US Nutrition Guide

•Equal portions of vegetables and grains •Smaller, equal portions of fruits and protein •Small portion of dairy

What path would food take from the time you eat it until it leaves your body? Practice -Try to put the following organs in order:

•Oral Cavity •Esophagus •Stomach •Small Intestine •Large Intestine •Anus

A Case Study: Termites •Termites have large jaws that allow them to chew and digest wood -However they cannot naturally absorb the wood fiber

•There is a protist that can absorb nutrients from wood but does not have jaws to chew and digest it. •This protist lives in termites' guts to helps absorb nutrients.

you are what you eat ▪ Carbohydrates ▪ Proteins ▪ Fats Online/App Calorie Counters ◦My Fitness Pal ◦LoseIt ◦Weight Watchers ($) ◦Many others

▪ 4 calories per gram ▪ 4 calories per gram ▪ 9 calories per gram