Blue Folder

- Rebellion during the transatlantic voyages - Flee to free communities of former slaves - Wide-scale slave rebellions were rare, and small-scale rebellions were crushed with great brutality

How did Africans resist slavery and the slave trade?

- In the Mediterranean world and with sugar - Until the Crusades, Europeans knew nothing about sugar - Learned from the Arabs about sugarcane and the laborious techniques for producing usable sugar - Europeans established sugar-producing plantations within the Mediterranean and later on islands off the coast of West Africa - Required huge capital investment, substantial technology, and factory-like discipline among workers - Initially, Slavic-speaking peoples from the Black Sea region were the slaves for plantations ("Slav" became slave) - When the Ottoman Turks seized Constantinople, supply of Slavic slaves was cut off - Portuguese mariners were exploring the coast of West Africa - Thus, when sugar and later tobacco and cotton plantations took hold in the Americas, Europeans had already established likes to a supply of slaves - Now had religious justification - Through process of elimination, Africa became the primary source of slave labor fro the plantation economies of the Americas

How did Atlantic slavery start?

- The British government paid little attention to the internal affairs of the colonies because they didn't have as much of an imperial bureaucracy and relied on joint stock companies. - The lands they acquired were the unpromising leftovers because they were the last of the European powers to establish a colonial presence in the Americas

WHY were British colonies different from Spanish colonies in Central and South America?

- Corn - Potatoes - Cassava - Eastern Hemisphere - Provided nutritional foundation for the immense population growth - Calories helped push population growth - Corn went to China and Africa - Potatoes went, most notably, to Ireland

What American crops moved to Afro-Eurasia? Where did they go? What impacts did they have?

- Dutch and English entered Indian Ocean commerce in the early 17th century - Overtook & displaced the Portuguese - Rising powers were both militarily and economically stronger than the Portuguese - Dutch had become a highly commercialized and urbanized society - Business skills and maritime shipping operations = envy of Europe

Analysis: what factors allowed Britain and the Netherlands to create more effective empires than Spain and Portugal?

- China was already powerful they were simply exploring for the heck of it - Europe had an agenda that they wanted to get done

Analysis: why was European maritime voyaging different than China?

- Paralleled each other - Profitability of trade in furs was the chief incentive for Russia's expansion - Consequences for native Siberians were similar to those in North America - Examples: disease, indigenous people reliant on foreign goods, settler frontier encroached on native lands, and species of fur-bearing mammals were depleted - There was no competition in Russian fur trade like there was in North America

Compare & Contrast the Russian and American fur trades

- Native Americans represented a cheap labor force but weren't a directly coerced labor force - Native Americans enter into a semi-dependent relationship where they are sort of getting paid. - Not ideal conditions, exploitation, but not ownership

Compare & contrast Native American fur-related labor with slavery

- The Spanish attempted to influence local cultures in colonies - The Portuguese didn't really leave as much of an impact and assimilated more to the local cultures because their main goal was access to trading ports. - Both used taxes, though those of the Spanish worked better

Compare and Contrast the Spanish and Portuguese Asian trade empires

- Similar in terms of conquest, settlement, exploitation, religious conversion, and feelings of superiority - Russians had acquired their empire under different circumstances - Spanish and the British had conquered and colonized the New World, an ocean away and wholly unknown. They acquired those empires after establishing themselves as distinct European states - Russians absorbed adjacent territories, and did so at the same time that a modern Russian state was taking shape

Compare and contrast Russian empire formation with Russian empire formation in Western European empires.

- Dutch: ○ Dutch acted not only to control shipping of cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, and mace but also their production ○ (With bloodshed) the Dutch seized control of a number of spice-producing islands, and forced the people to sell only to the Dutch and destroying the crops of those who refused ○ For a time they were able to monopolize the trade in nutmeg, mace, and cloves and to sell these spices in Europe and India at 14 to 17 times the price they paid ○ Also established itself briefly on Taiwan hoping to produce deerskins, rice, and sugar for export ○ Local people were unwilling to take part in commercial agriculture, so the Dutch opened the island to Chinese immigration ○ Later, Chinese forces expelled the Dutch, bringing Taiwan under China politically ○ Taiwan is a good example of intersection between European and Chinese expansion - British: ○ Less well financed and less commercially sophisticated ○ Established 3 major trading settlements in India: § Bombay (now Mumbai) § Calcutta § Madras ○ Naval forces gained control of the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf, replacing the Portuguese ○ On land they were no match for the Mughals, which ruled most of India ○ British were unable to practice "trade by warfare" ○ Secured bases with permission of Mughal authorities or local rulers, with substantial payments and bribes as a price of admission into the Indian market ○ Though spices remained important, British merchants came to focus more heavily on Indian cotton textiles - Both became heavily involved in trade within Asia - Profits enabled them to keep buying Asian goods without paying for them in gold or silver - Traders began dealing in bulk goods for a mass market rather than just luxury goods for an elite market - Both trading post empires slowly evolved into a more conventional form of colonial domination

Compare and contrast the Dutch and British approaches to Asian empire formation

- Spanish America had much more of a different ethnic and racial makeup- the highest percent of the population were natives, followed by mixed-race - Portuguese Brazil had a higher population of Africans because of the slave labor- after 3 centuries of colonial rule, the majority of Brazil's population was either partially or wholly of African descent - In both, there was a lot of racial mixing - Cross-racial unions were less common in Portuguese Brazil, but the use of concubines and informal liaisons produced a substantial mixed-race population

Compare and contrast the social and labor impacts of Spanish control of the Americas with Portuguese Brazil

- Daimyo were feudal lords who were part of the conflict in Japan - Daimyo each had their own cadre of samurai warriors - Shogun were supreme military commanders

Define & give significance: daimyo, samurai, shogun

- Mid-sixteenth century discovery of rich silver deposits in Bolivia and Japan provided increased supply

How did the silver trade start?

- British and Dutch organized ventures through private trading companies - These were able to raise money and share risks among a substantial amount of merchant investors - British East India & Dutch East India Companies received charters from respective governments granting them trading monopolies and the power to make war and to govern conquered people - Established parallel and competing trading post empires - Dutch focused on the islands of Indonesia and the English on India - French later established settlements in the Indian Ocean Basin

Explain how British and Dutch private trading companies were organized.

- Mestizos were largely Hispanic in culture - Spaniards looked down on them, regarding them as "illegitimate" - The bottom of the society were the natives, known as "Indians" - Racial hierarchy system based on where you are born - People born in Spain - Creoles (people from Spain born in the Americas) - Mestizos (Caucasian/native) - Caucasian/African - Native American - African slaves

Explain the Spanish social hierarchy and its impact

- Defined what it meant to be the "sovereign" of a state and began the process of institutionalizing the multistate system (rules of war) - Inaugurates a period of warfare - States have to get creative to survive because in Europe the states are consolidating, meaning you might be absorbed by your neighbors - State innovations that Europe won't import from other places ○ New forms of government and new additions to government to survive in this super chaotic climate

From the Treaty of Westphalia, how does the state system emerge?

- Bhakti ○ Bhakti bridged the gulf separating Hindu and Muslim ○ Through songs, prayers, dances, poetry, and rituals, devotees sought to achieve union with one or another of India's many deities. ○ Bhakti movement provided an avenue for social criticism. Practitioners often set aside caste distinctions in favor of direct contact with the divine - Sikhism ○ New and distinctive religious tradition in the Punjab region of northern India ○ Guru Nanak had been involved in the bhakti movement ○ Teachings and those of subsequent gurus also generally ignored caste distinctions and untouchability and ended the seclusion of women ○ Gradually became a separate religious community ○ Developed the Guru Granth, their own sacred book ○ Encountered hostility from both the Mughal Empire and some of their Hindu neighbors ○ In response, Sikhism evolved from a peaceful religious movement into a militant community

How did Bhakti and Sikhism challenge the Muslim/Hindu divide of the Mughal Empire?

- English proved willing and able to use state power for economic ends - Restricted trade of their colonies to England only - Enforced these acts - Protestant monarchs agreed to abide by the laws of Parliament (which was dominated by manufacturing interest) - Passed laws restricting importation of Indian cotton textiles to England to protect British manufacturers & encourage development of a British cotton textile industry - England eventually had a government which had a state policy prepared to support textile manufacturing

How did Britain begin to use their state power for economic ends?

- Spanish sponsorships of the first Colombian and subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific dramatically increase European interest in transoceanic travel and trade - Columbus exaggerated all the great things- this made it so that he had to reach his goal, taking more and more to reach this - Generates the interest by finding different sources of wealth and exaggerating it - Plantation based society

How did Columbus' voyages increase European interest in travel and trade?

- Aimed to control commerce, not large territories - Tried to require all merchant vessels to purchase a pass and to pay duties - Partially blocked the traditional Red Sea route to the Mediterranean

How did Portugal attempt to maintain its "trading post empire"?

- Kings who resisted transformation and weren't respectful they captured - They killed those who were thieves - Sea rouses became pure and peaceful - Essentially the Chinese would visit other civilizations and would suggest changing their cultures to accommodate the Chinese culture, those who disagreed would be captured.

How did Zheng He's voyages result in cultural transfers?

- Survivors of the yellow fever had acquired immunity and the Africans were already resistant to malaria - Armies that weren't immune or resistant, could be severely affected - Perhaps why the Spanish empire in Mexico and the Caribbean could resist English and French attacks and last for so long- help of these diseases - American rebels in the southeast had acquired immunity to malaria, whereas the British were not

How did immunity impact the results of wars?

- Native American peoples generally agreed, and by 1700 or later the vast majority saw themselves in some respects as Christians - For the Aztecs and Inca: the religions were already imposed on the defeated peoples, so they were fairly open to the European's God, saints, rites, and rituals

How did indigenous Americans respond to Christianity?

- Acted deliberately to accommodate the Hindu majority - Incorporated a substantial number of Hindus into the political-military elite of the empire and supported the building of Hindu temples - Acted to soften Hindu restrictions of women - Imposed a policy of toleration, restraining ulama (religious scholars) and removing the jizya on non-Muslims - House of Worship where he presided over intellectual discussion with representatives from many religions - Empire was a blended elite culture in which Hindus and Muslim groups could feel comfortable

How did leaders like Akbar deal with Hindus?

- Ecological changes had unintended consequences: spread of yellow fever and malaria - Each is caused by a virus spread to humans through the bites of particular kinds of mosquitoes - Neither the yellow fever nor the mosquitoes that carried it existed in the Americas, meaning it had to have been transmitted. - For malaria, there were mosquitoes already in the Americas that simply didn't have the virus - Common causal factor: sugar plantations - Cutting down forests in Brazil and on Caribbean islands created ditches and other lowland sources of fresh water- cattle and other hooved animals left indentations in the ground that filled with rainwater. - African slaves had brought the malaria virus, so that when bitten by one of the indigenous mosquito species that could carry the disease, it could be passed to other humans - For yellow fever, the mosquito itself was transported to the Americas in the casks of drinking water on ships

How did sugar plantations lead to malaria and yellow fever?

- Production was labor-intensive - Most profitably occur large-scale (almost industrial) - First modern industry (produced for an international and mass market, using capital and expertise form Europe, and production facilities in the Americas) - Massive use of slave labor - Sugarcane planters turned to Africa and the Atlantic slave trade because there was little to no native population left - Different ethnic and racial makeup

How did sugar production change the social and economic landscape of Brazil and the Americas?

- Elites often enriched themselves, while the slaves were victimized beyond imagination - Slave trade added a substantial African presence to the mix of European and Native American peoples - African diaspora injected issues of race - Introduced elements of African culture (religious ideas, musical and artistic traditions, and cuisine) - Profits enriched European and Euro-American societies - Slavery contributed to the racial stereotypes - Slavery became a metaphor for many kinds of social oppression, quite different from plantation slavery - Workers protested the slavery of wage labor, colonized people rejected the slavery of imperial domination, and feminists sometimes defined patriarchy as a form of slavery - Rationalization creates modern racism - Concept of race being based on color is recent- comes into existence because of the Atlantic slave trade

How did the Atlantic slave trade impact our thinking on race and oppression?

- Conquered peoples and cities were required to provide labor for Aztec projects and to regularly deliver to their Aztec rulers impressive quantities of textiles and clothing, military supplies, jewelry, and other luxuries - Process was overseen by local imperial tribute collectors, who sent the required goods on to Tenochtitlán

How did the Aztec empire govern its conquered peoples?

- Eliminate all signs of foreign rule - Discourage use of Mongol names and dress - Promotion of Confucian learning and orthodox gender roles - Encyclopedia (11,000 volumes) ○ Summarize or compile all previous writing on history, geography, philosophy, ethics, government, and more - Relocated capital to Beijing building of imperial residence (Forbidden city) - Temple of Heaven ○ Rulers performed Confucian-based rituals to ensure the well-being of Chinese society

How did the Emperor Yongle consolidate power and govern?

- Incas were a bureaucratic empire - In the Incas there was the emperor who was regarded as divine and other officials elected by the emperor - In Aztecs, no administrative system arose to integrate the conquered territories or to assimilate their people to Aztec culture

How did the Inca government structure compare to that of the Aztecs?

- Much larger than the Aztec state

How did the Incan empire compare in size to the Aztecs?

- Qing rulers sought to maintain their ethnic distinctiveness by forbidding intermarriage - Ruling elites mastered Chinese language and Confucian teachings and used Chinese bureaucratic techniques to govern

How did the Manchus establish control of China?

- Governed largely by non-Muslim populations - Continued an ongoing encounter between Islamic and Hindu beliefs - Creation of yet another Islamized Turkic group that invaded India - Mughals established unified control over most of the Indian peninsula - Land of great wealth and splendor

How did the Mughal Empire rise?

- Fourteenth to earliest twentieth century - Creation of one of the many Turkic warrior groups that had migrated into Anatolia, slowly and sporadically - By mid 15th century ottoman Turks had carved out an empire

How did the Ottoman Empire rise?

- Periodic military conflict - Territorial rivalry - Sharp religious differences (Sunni and Shia)

How did the Ottoman and Safavid empires interact?

- Wholly new era - Removed from the confined religious world of Feudal Europe - Returning to the sources - Christine de Pizan (writing) - More interested in capturing the unique qualities of particular individuals and in describing the world

How did the Renaissance reflect changing thinking about women and gender roles?

- Late 15th and 16th ce3nturies - Emerged from a Sufi religious order

How did the Safavid empire rise?

- They import slaves from Africa - Birth of the Atlantic slave trade ○ Begins around 1440 ○ Doesn't pop out of nowhere ○ Portuguese had been buying slaves for decades by the time they start importing slaves ○ Continue and expand upon in the Canary islands and other islands ○ Slave trade really pops up in the 1500s as a way to replace

How did the Spanish address their labor problem?

- The Spanish minority was a divided community - Descendants of the originals sought to protect their privileges against newcomers - The native populations of the Americas that they attempted to enslave keeps dying because of diseases through the Columbian Exchange

How did the Spanish have a labor problem in the Americas?

- Common burdens of violent conquest, epidemic disease, and coerced labor - Cope with the additional demands - Transfer of women to the new colonial rulers - Women were traded to men from the colonial country - Sexual violence and abuse - Rape accompanied conquest in many places

How did the colonization of the Americas uniquely affect women?

- Different power from a different region that imposed its different beliefs on the locals- it was similar to the Mongols in that they eventually assimilated to their environments. - Not taking over empires: just focused on trading - China left the area - Small number of people compared to India - Portugal is too small, too distant, to dominate as a traditional empire would - They were cutting out the middle man - Effect: ○ Taxed the trading posts - Making it less peaceful - Step up reinforcement

How did the introduction of Europeans into the Indian Ocean challenge the existing state consolidation and expansion in the Indian Ocean region?

- Different social hierarchy in their form of plantation based slavery - British will develop sugar colony islands in Caribbean - Copy how other plantations are run (Spanish and French) - Island will run out of land- move to British North America - Take with them the form of slavery from Barbados - Introduce this form of slavery - Slightly less brutal because the crops are less profitable - British have greater degree of reluctance to mix with their slaves: less of a gradient

How did the racial system of the plantation complex spread to British North America?

- Americas: ○ Potosí: site of a huge silver-mining operation in Bolivia ○ Labor exploitation and horrible working conditions ○ Contribute to racial hierarchy system - Spain: ○ Precious metal enriched the Crown, making Spain the envy of its European rivals during the 16th century ○ Spanish rulers could now pursue military and political ambitions in Europe and the Americas ○ Vast infusion of wealth didn't fundamentally transform the Spanish economy because it inflated the prices ○ Rigid economy laced with monopolies and regulations, and aristocratic class that preferred leisure to enterprise, and a crusading insistence on religious uniformity all prevented the Spanish from using the silver in a productive fashion ○ Value of silver dropped - Japan: ○ Major source of silver production in the 16th century ○ Military rulers used silver-generated profits to defeat rivals and unify the country ○ Allied with domestic merchant class to develop a market-based economy and to invest heavily in agricultural and industrial enterprises ○ State and local authorities acted vigorously to protect and renew dwindling forests, while millions of families took steps to have fewer children ○ Outcome was the dramatic slowing of Japan's population growth, easing of an impending ecological crisis, and a flourishing, highly commercialized economy - China: ○ Silver deepened the already-substantial commercialization of the country's economy ○ More and more people had to sell something (labor or products) ○ Chinese economy became more regionally specified ○ In Southern China, surging economic growth resulted in the loss of about half the area's forest cover as more and more land was devoted to cash crops ○ Role in the silver trade is a reminder of Asian centrality in the world economy ○ Large and prosperous population, increasingly operating within a silver-based economy, fueled global commerce, vastly increasing the quantity of goods exchanged and the geographic range of world trade

How did the silver trade impact the Americas, Spain, Japan, China?

- Rulers attempted to bring all of Europe under their dominion - Europeans had pined for the reestablishment of a universal political order based upon Christianity - New World wealth that started flowing into Spain gave the king (and his successor) the money to attempt to unify their lands - Wars proved so costly that the Spanish crown declared bankruptcy several times - Competitive system of sovereign nation-states would take the place of Spain's attempt

How did the silver trade impact the Spanish empire?

- Emergence of trade companies - General crisis - Little evidence of much of a slowdown in trading on the Indian Ocean - Been & would remain important link & source of great wealth & access - Starting in 650 with the expansion of the Islamic world and the establishment of the Tang dynasty in China and ending around 1750 with the British colonization of India - Single most important crossroads of trade & generator of merchant wealth in the world - From 650 to 1000 Arab traders & mariners carried goods and ideas from Islamic Near East to Southeast Asia and China & back ○ Spread language & religion - From 1000 to 1500 Chinese merchants saw profits to be made & sailed into the Indian Ocean to compete with the Arabs. - Chinese entrance divided trade into circuits determined by pattern of monsoon winds - Western zone Arab traders were most active - Central was dominated by Indian merchants - Chinese dominated South China Sea trade - Trading cities - During first 2 periods trade was self-regulating - From 1500 to 1750 the Portuguese (then Dutch, English, and French) introduced "armed trading" where they forced others already there to arm themselves in defense or to pay the intruders for protection - Trade was so great that they did not dominate it until steamships in the late 1800s

How did trade change by 1750?

- Before, claims rested on religious grounds - During the global crisis, kings under "divine right" demanded taxes no matter what - Religious claims led to monarchs to expel other religions from their countries - European Enlightenment challenged idea of divine right - Democratic rights based on the construction of the rights of the individual - Ideas broadened basis upon which a state could be established (included the consent of the governed)

How do states begin to change their claim to legitimacy by 1750?

- Hospitable welcome for military technologies, shipbuilding skills, geographic knowledge, commercial opportunities, and even religious ideas proved useful or attractive to various elements in Japan's competitive society

How does Japan initially react to Portuguese explorers? Why?

- Successive shoguns viewed Europeans as a threat to the country's newly established unity - Expelled christian missionaries & suppressed practice of Christianity - Execution/torture of missionaries and converts - Forbade Japanese from traveling abroad and banned most European traders altogether (permitting only the Dutch) - Early 1600s Japanese traders began to operate in Southeast Asia (behaved much life Europeans by using force) - Japanese government took no responsibility for nor connection with Japanese merchants - Still kept contact with Korea (have the upper hand) and a little bit with China but basically cut themselves off from the outside world

How does the Japanese approach to outsiders change by the 1600s? What is the result of this changed approach?

- 16th century: fewer than 3,000 annually. Portuguese were at least as much interested in African gold, spices, and textiles. In Asia, they became involved in transporting African goods, including slaves. - 17th century: pace picked up as slave trade became highly competitive. - 1700-1850: high point of the slave trade as the plantation economies of the Americas boomed

How does the slave trade change from 1500 to 1850?

- Estimated 12.5 million people - 10.7 were deposited in the Americas - 1.8 million died during the crossing, while countless others perished in the capture of and transport to the African coast

How many people were taken from African societies as a result of the Atlantic slave trade?

- Slaves reproduced themselves, and by the Civil War almost all North American slaves had been born in the New World - No importation of new slaves - Less slaves voluntarily set free by owners - Less economic opportunities for freed slaves and mixed-race

How was slavery different in North America?

- Scientists have linked the Little Ice Age to the demographic collapse in the Americas - The Great Dying resulted in the desertion of large areas of farmland and ended the traditional practices of forest management - This led to a resurgence of plant life, taking large amounts of carbon dioxide

How was the Little Ice Age connected to the great dying?

- Songhay was at a crucial intersection in the trans-Saharan trade route - Cultural divide: Islamic style but not as available for lower classes - West African kingdom that rules over a fairly non-diverse population - A lot of cultural and economic achievements are based around trans-Saharan trade - Viewed as on the periphery of the Muslim world (geographic obstacles)

How was the Songhay Empire similar to Mali?

- In the Balkans, Muslims ruled over a large Christina population, but the scarcity of Turkish settlers and the willingness of the Ottoman authorities to accommodate the region's Christian churches led to far fewer conversions

How was the treatment of Christians different in the Balkans?

- Eight interlinking trading zones - East Asia subsystem linked China and the Spice Islands to India - Middle East-Mongolian subsystem linked the Eurasian continent from the eastern Mediterranean to Central Asia and India - European subsystem linked Europe to the Middle East and the Indian Ocean - Subsystems overlapped - Three trade routes linked subsystems - Northern route went up through the Black Sea, then overland through the Mongol Empire to China - Central trade route went through Baghdad then into the Indian Ocean - Southern route from Cairo, overland south to the Red Sea, and into the Indian Ocean - Functioned without a central controlling or dominating force - World was polycentric: contained several regional systems

How was trade organized in 1400?

- British were last of the European powers to establish a colonial presence in the Americas - Lands they acquired were the unpromising leftovers - British settlers came from a more rapidly changing society than the Spanish - Britain had already experienced conflict between Catholics and Protestants - British colonies evolved traditions of local self-government more than the Spanish colonies - Relied on joint stock companies or wealthy individuals operating under a royal charter, Britain didn't have the elaborate imperial bureaucracy that Spanish colonies did - British government paid little attention to the internal affairs of the colonies

How were British colonies in North America different from Spanish colonies in Central and South America?

- There were taxes for those who practiced a different religion - Christina communities were granted considerable autonomy in regulating their internal social, religious, educational, and charitable affairs - This was similar to how Akbar allowed the Hindus religious freedom - Christian men became part of the Ottoman elite, much like how Hindu men became part of the Mughal government

How were Ottoman practices towards Christians similar to that of Akbar in Mughal India?

- To the east, the motives were different because the scattered peoples of the forests and tundra posed no threat to Russian power. - What drew them across Siberia was opportunity

How were the motivations different on the Western and Eastern borders of Russia?

- Never before in human history had such a large-scale and consequential diffusion of plants and animals operated to remake the biological environment of the planet - Connecting the Eastern and Western Hemispheres

In what way was the "Columbian Exchange" different from previous eras in world history?

- Seizure of Constantinople, conquest of the Balkans, Ottoman naval power in the Mediterranean, and the siege of Vienna raised the idea of a Muslim takeover in Europe - Inspired admiration and cooperation as well

In what ways did the Ottoman empire pose a perceived threat to Christian Europe?

- Area was ruled separately from the rest of China - Quin authorities feared that "soft" and civilized Chinese ways might erode the fighting spirit of the Mongols

In what ways did the Qing dynasty remain separate from Chinese culture?

EX: Sir Isaac Newton - English - Formulated the modern laws of motion and mechanics - Concept of universal gravitation - Started a revolutionary new understanding of the physical universe Galileo - Italian - Developed an improved telescope - Made observations that undermined established understandings of the cosmos - Some thinkers began to discuss the notion of an unlimited universe

Take notes on two examples of scientific revolution thinkers. You can choose any two. You'll need to know them as examples to cite in a SAQ or LEQ essay

- Wheat - Rice - Sugarcane - Grapes - Many garden vegetables and fruits - Various weeds - These transformed the landscape and made possible a recognizably European diet and way of life - Horses - Pigs - Cattle - Goats - Sheep - Multiplied because of a predator-free environment. These made the ranching economies and cowboy cultures of the Americas possible. Also transformed native societies

What European crops and animals became used in the Americas? What impact did they have?

- Conquest - Made active use of local notables as they attempted to govern the region as inexpensively as possible - Didn't seek to assimilate locals to Chinese culture

What Qing dynasty techniques of imperial administration were similar to other empires?

- Claimed exclusive religious truth and sought the utter destruction of local gods and everything associated with them - Reinterpreting Christian practices within an Andean framework - Combined traditional beliefs with Christian practices - Different ideals developed (EX: community identity became a huge part of Mexican Christianity)

What changes were made to Christianity in the Americas?

- Pre-Colombian population of the Western Hemisphere was substantial - When Native American peoples came into contact with European and African diseases, they lost up to 90% of the population

What demographic impact did the arrival of Europeans have on indigenous America?

- Spanish didn't really expect much to come from it - Thought they were superior - The native peoples were trusting- perhaps thought of them as other, something to be revered, because they were so different from themselves - The natives were looked down on from the beginning, Columbus had a bad attitude.

What does the story of Columbus tell us about history?

- Reestablished the civil service examination system - Highly centralized government - Power concentrated in the hands of the emperor - Cadre of enuchs (castrated men) were loyal to the emperor and exercised great authority ○ Dynastic politics: concerned with the rule of family & inheritance for them ○ Trustworthy because they cannot have a family so they can't serve their own family and have other ties than the emperor - Worked to repair the damage of the Mongol years ○ Restored millions of acres to cultivation ○ Rebuilt canals, reservoirs, irrigation works ○ Planting a lot of trees!

What effects did Ming rule have on China?

- Geography ○ The countries on the Atlantic rim of Europe were closer to the Americas than any Asian competitors - Fixed winds ○ The fixed winds of the Atlantic blew steadily in the same direction. Once these air currents were understood and mastered, they provided a different maritime environment than the alternating monsoon winds of the Indian Ocean. - Innovations ○ European innovations in mapmaking, navigation, sailing techniques, and ship design enabled European penetration of the Atlantic Ocean. - The rich markets of the Indian Ocean world left little incentive for Asian powers to venture beyond their own waters. ○ Europeans were determined to gain access to the Asian world - Once the Americas were "discovered", there were many natural resources that drove further expansion, and underpinned the long-term growth of the European economy into the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. - Rulers were driven by enduring rivalries of competing states. - States and trading companies, seafaring technology, ironworking technology, gunpowder weapons, and horses. - Most distinct: germs and diseases

What enabled Europeans to carve out huge empires from 1450-1750?

- Muslim ottoman sultan seized control of Constantinople, marking the end of the Byzantine/Roman empire - Byzantine empire had been retreating for almost two centuries - Little was left of the wealth of the Byzantines - No help from Western Christians - New sultan who was regarded as not promising, but was determined to gain honor - Assembled huge fleet and laid siege

What factors contributed to the Ottoman victory over the Byzantine Empire?

- Regrew its population during the second half of the 15th century (after escaping the Mongols and dealing w/ the plague) - Infrastructure of civilization proved a durable foundation for demographic and economic revival - State building; fragmented system of many separate, independent, and highly competitive states; sharply divided - Taxes

What factors led to the development of European states?

- In exchange for slaves, African sellers sought European and Indian textiles, cowrie shells (money), European metal goods, firearms and gunpowder, tobacco and alcohol, and various decorative items such as beads - Europeans purchased some of these items with silver mined in the Americas - Thus, the slave trade connected with commerce in silver and textiles as it became part of an emerging worldwide network of exchange

What goods did African and European merchants trade in the slave trade? What was the connection between the Atlantic slave trade and the global silver trade?

- Ottomans (Sunni) vs Safavids (Shia) expressed a deep and enduring division within the Islamic world - Persian culture occupied a prominent position among the Ottoman elite

What impact did the century-long conflict with the Safavid empire have on the Ottoman empire?

- Christian population of Anatolia converted in large numbers to Islam - Constantinople fell to the Turks - They renamed it Istanbul

What impact did the expansion of the Ottoman empire have on Christianity?

- Created an acute labor shortage and made room for immigrant newcomers

What impact did the great dying and Little Ice Age have on the labor situation in the Americas?

- Overall weren't pleased - A powerful group of scholars push the emperors to impose the jizya and actively try to convert the populous

What impact did toleration of Hindus have on Muslim populations in India?

- Large numbers of women were attracted to Protestantism - Didn't offer them a substantially greater role in the church or society - In Protestant-dominated areas, veneration of Mary and female saints ended - Protestant opposition to celibacy and monastic life closed the convents - Protestants (except Quakers) weren't any more willing to offer women an official role within the church

What impacts did Protestantism have on the status of women in Christianity?

- Rebellions, revolutions, social crises, population declines, and sharp economic downturns - Linked with the cooling of the global climate (Little Ice Age!) - Harvest yields plummeted, civil wars (China & Russia had pressure on food supplies and rulers refused to acknowledge the decline & continued extracting taxes), populations died due to famine & starvation

What was the general crisis? What caused it? What were its effects?

- Epidemics due to lack of immunity - Conversion to Christianity - Native Siberian populations were reduced because of Russian migration - Loss of hunting grounds and pasturelands undermined long-standing economies and rendered local people dependent on Russian markets for grain, sugar, tea, tobacco, and alcohol - Requirement to pay fees and to obtain permission to cross agricultural lands - Siberia and the steppes were incorporated into the Russian state - Native Peoples were Russified, adopting the Russian language and converting to Christianity

What impacts did Russian expansion have on the steppe and Siberia?

- Silver mines of Mexico and Peru fueled transatlantic and transpacific commerce - Atlantic slave trade - New information - Wealth provided foundations of Industrial Revolution - Provided an outlet for rapidly growing populations

What impacts did the Columbian exchange have on Europe?

- Consistent demand for beaver hats led to near extinction of beavers in much of North America by the early 19th century & with it the degradation or loss of many wetland habitats - Other fur-bearing species were seriously depleted - For Native Americans the trade had some benefits (especially at the beginning) - Competition among Europeans ensured that Native American leaders could negotiate reasonable prices for their goods - Important role in fur trade protected them from the kind of extermination, enslavement, or displacement that happened in Portuguese Brazil - Disease carried by Europeans - Competition among Native American societies became more intense - Population declines

What impacts did the fur trade have on the environment and Native Americans?

- Desire for tropical spices - Other products of the East: Chinese silk, Indian cottons, rhubarb for medicinal purposes, emeralds, rubies, and sapphires

What motivated Europeans to engage in Asian commerce?

- Prisoners of war! - And more land

What motivated the Aztec empire to expand?

- Grasslands south and east was long inhabited by various nomadic pastoral peoples, who were organized into feuding tribes and clans and adjusting to the recent disappearance of the Mongol Empire. - Problem was security because these pastoral peoples often raided their agricultural neighbors

What motivated the expansion of the small Russian state into the Russian empire?

- Fueled European wars and colonial rivalries around the world - Tariffs - Navigation laws (it is illegal to directly trade with other countries) - Grant monopolies - Privateering (legalized piracy - infrastructure

What policies did mercantilism promote?

- To attract and then to keep the largest possible quantity of the world's stock of precious metals, especially silver and later gold

What policies did mercantilism promote?

- A cultural standardization measure - If you want to participate in the government, you must know the language; entails studying culture and other parts of the Inca - Allows for integration of conquered peoples

What role did Quechua (language) play in the expansion of the Incan empire?

- Russian military might - Modern weaponry and the organizational capacity of a state - Oath of allegiance - Yasak or tribute paid in cash or in kind - In Siberia, this meant furs - Devastating epidemics accompanied conquest - Intermittent pressure to convert to Christianity (tax breaks, exemptions from paying tribute, and the promise of land or cast provided incentives for conversion, while the destruction of many mosques and the forced resettlement of Muslims added to the pressures)

What techniques did Russia use to maintain control over its empire?

- Put these technologies from above onto new ships: caravel and carrack - Wind and current patterns in the Atlantic - Astronomic charts - Due to high degree of piracy, caravel and carrack ships were heavily armed

What technologies did Portugal create that helped facilitate navigation?

- Silver mining collapsed - American silver declined, and the outflow to Asia increased

What trends limited European access to currency?

- Dresses worn by women in Mexico city - The national dress of Mexican women - Chinese imports were so well made and cheap that they destroyed the Mexican silk industry, even as silk weaving increased because of cheap silk thread imported from China

What was a "china poblana"? Why would it be a symbol of the global nature of the silver trade?

- Devshirme ("The collecting or gathering") was when Ottoman authorities would siphon off thousands of young Christian boys into the service of the state - The Janissaries were an elite military unit responsible directly to the sultan that was originally made up of devshirme

What was devshirme? Who were the Janissaries?

- An economic theory - Colonies provided closed markets for the manufactured goods of the "mother country" and if they were lucky supplied great quantities of bullion as well

What was mercantilism?

- General Crisis was the impact of the cooling environment - Mid-seventeenth century - Regions near the equator experienced extreme conditions and irregular rainfall - Wet, cold summers - Accentuated stresses in society: famines, epidemics, uprisings, and wars

What was the General Crisis? When did it happen? Why was it significant?

- A period of unusually cool temperatures that spanned much of the early modern period - Low point in sunspot activity - Volcanic eruptions

What was the Little Ice Age?

- It was the end of the conflict of the Thirty Years' war - Thirty Years' war: ○ Catholic-Protestant struggle that began in the Holy Roman Empire but eventually engulfed most of Europe ○ Destructive war during which between 15 to 30 percent of the German population perished from violence, famine, or disease - Brought conflict to an end, with some reshuffling of boundaries and an agreement that each state was sovereign, authorized to control religious affairs within its own territory - Religious unity was splintered

What was the Peace of Westphalia? Why was it significant?

- The overall issue with Chinese withdrawal - After expedition: cleared of pirate threats - Lots of states and merchants participating without a regulating power - Free and open with very little state interference outside of paying taxes when you do business in the ports - Ancient: well-established routes and familiarity with what you can sell where (Portuguese didn't know)

What was the context of Indian Ocean commerce when Portugal entered the market in 1500?

- Societies of West and South-Central Africa - Focused on costal regions - Slave trad progressively penetrated into the interior as demand picked up - Slaves were drawn from various marginal groups in African societies- prisoners of war, criminals, debtors, and people who had been pawned during times of difficulty - Those who were captured and sold were normally outsiders, vulnerable people on the outskirts of societies

What was the geographic and social makeup of African slaves?

- General recovery of European civilizatoin following the Black Death - Population growth - National monarchies were learning how to tax their subjects effectively, and to build substantial military forces (equipped with gunpowder weapons) - Cities were growing

What was the global context of European entry into Asian commerce? How did this context impact Europe's role?

- Strain of Muslim thinking that said it was the duty of Muslim rulers to impose the sharia, to enforce the jizya, and to remove non-Muslims from high office - Emperor Aurangzeb came into power, essentially reversing Akbar's efforts to accommodate the Hindu majority - Sought to impose Islamic supremacy

What was the impact of this Muslim "backlash"?

- Christianity motivated European political and economic expansion - Colonial settlers and traders brought their faith with them and sought to replicate it - Missionaries

What was the relationship between governments and the spread of Christianity?

- Central division was religious - Ruling dynasty and 20% of the population were Muslims- most of the rest practiced some form of Hinduism

What was the religious makeup of India during the Mughal empire?

- World of Christendom stretched from Spain and England to Russia, with communities in Egypt, Ethiopia, southern India, and Central Asia - Seriously divided between the Roman Catholics of Western and Central Europe and the Eastern Orthodox of Eastern Europe and Russia - Very much on the defensive against Islam - Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1529 marked a Muslim advance into the heart of Central Europe

What was the state of Christianity in 1500?

- Immense size of the traffic in slaves and its centrality to the economies of Colonial America - New World slavery was based on plantation agriculture and treated slaves as a form of dehumanized property, lacking any rights in the society of their owners - Slave status was inherited across generations, with little hope of eventual freedom for the vast majority - Nowhere else (aside from possibly Ancient Greece), was widespread slavery associated with societies that affirmed values of human freedom and equality

What was unique about slavery in the Americas?

- Mediterranean and Indian Ocean basins were major arenas of the Old World slave trade - Southern Russia was a major source of slaves - African societies practiced slavery themselves and sold slaves into international commercial networks - Trans-Saharan slave trade had long funneled African captives into Mediterranean slavery - East African slave trade from at least 7th century CE brought Africans into the Middle East and the Indian Ocean basin

What were examples of slavery prior to 1500?

- "Racial stereotypes were transmitted, along with black slavery itself, from Muslim to Christians" - Within the European culture itself ○ Process of conquering Ireland as example: view of Irish as bad! ○ Perceptions were then transferred to Africans enslaved - Slavery and racism went hand-in-hand

What were some historical arguments for the origins of racism?

- Size: ○ European maritime expeditions were a lot smaller than Chinese ones (by a lot!!! Like 4 ships to over 100) - Motives: ○ Europeans were seeking the wealth of Africa and Asia (gold, spices, silk). In search for Christian converts and Christian allies to continue crusades ○ China faced no equivalent power, no military allies, required little. No impulse to convert. Confident and overwhelmingly powerful. - Outcome: ○ China decided to end its voyages ○ Europe soon brought the world's oceans and growing numbers of the world's people under its control ○ Why Zheng He's voyages were neglected in China's history. They led nowhere.

What were the differences between Chinese and European maritime expeditions? (This is important. Include size, motives, and outcome)

- Expanded the territory of China and added a small but important minority of non-Chinese people to the empire's population - Borders of contemporary China are those created during the Qing dynasty - Some peoples have retained their older identities and in recent decades have actively sought greater autonomy or independence from China - Chinese Conquests transformed Central Asia ○ Region had been the cosmopolitan crossroads of Eurasia ○ Became the backward and impoverished region ○ Land-based commerce took a backseat to oceanic trade

What were the effects of Qing takeover of China?

- Shorter growing seasons - Less hospitable weather conditions adversely affected food production

What were the effects of the Little Ice Age?

- New transregional linkages that generated as Africa became a permanent part of an interacting Atlantic world - Slave trade did not cause Africa to experience population collapse like in the Americas- however, African growth was slowed substantially - Slave trade produced economic stagnation and social disruption - Economically, slave trade stimulated little positive change in Africa - Imports generally didn't displace traditional manufacturing, no technological breakthroughs helped add wealth to societies - Maize and manioc added a new source of calories - Fostered moral corruption, particularly as judicial proceedings were manipulated to generate victims for slave trade - African women felt impact: labor demands on women who remained - Far more men could marry multiple women - Use of female slaves within West African societies grew as the export in male slaves expanded - For some women, slave trade provided an opportunity to exercise power and accumulate wealth - State-building enterprises that often accompanied the slave trade in West Africa offered more opportunities to a few women - Housing of women and presided over by a powerful Queen, served to integrate the diverse regions of the state - Women held lower-level administrative positions - Many small-scale kinship-based societies were disrupted by raids - Larger kingdoms disintegrated as access to trading opportunities and firearms enabled outlying regions to establish their independence - African authorities also sought to take advantage of the new commercial opportunities and to manage the slave trade in their own interests

What were the impacts of the slave trade on Africa?

- Maritime expeditions ○ Enormous fleet commandeered by Emperor Yongle ○ Visited many ports ○ Rulers accompanied fleets back and payed tribute, and rituals ○ Exotic products ○ Didn't seek to conquer new territories - Knew where he was going - Peaceful but used force - Born and raised Muslim but he was interested in other Gods

What were the purposes of Zheng He's voyages?

- Influence from others - Based on previous classical works and attempt to surpass them - Different effect: art focused on human body and human experience (reflected in Renaissance art) - Reflection of humanism - State building is less focused on beauty and humanism and more on realism and cynicism - Art continues the trend of a positive view whereas state building focuses more on other things

What's the connection between Renaissance art and European state building?

- English found cheap cotton textiles from India to be superior to anything they could buy locally - Indian exports climbed steadily - British government banned the importation of Indian cotton

What's up with Britain, India, and cotton?

- By 1415 by Portugal - Down the west coast of Africa - Supported by the state and blessed by the Pope - Christopher Columbus (oh lordy)

When did European maritime expeditions happen?

Between 1500 and 1866

When did the Atlantic slave trade exist?

- 1526-1707 - As Mughal emperors exercised a fragile control over a diverse and fragmented subcontinent

When did the Mughal empire maintain control of India?

- Around 1300 from a base area in northwestern Antatolia - Swept over much of the Middle East, Norht Africa, and southeastern Europe to creat the Islamic world's most significant empire

When did the Ottoman empire start?

1644

When did the Qing/Manchu dynasty begin?

- On the Caribbean islands - British took Barbados in 1640, and settlers started clearing the land for sugar plantations, with sugar exported to the home country - Sugar industry expanded rapidly, especially after Britain took Jamaica from the Spanish - French established sugar plantations in the Caribbean starting on Martinique - By the 17th century so much English and French sugar was being exported back home that competition drove Brazilian sugar from northern Europe - Totally deforested several Caribbean islands for sugar that erosion wrecked the fertility of the soil and changed local climates

Where and when did France and Britain establish sugar plantations? What happened to the soil there?

- When the Portuguese sailed into the Indian Ocean, they discovered that they were poor and had nothing of value to trade nor money to buy anything with - Silver flowed from the New World to Seville but the Spanish monarchs were constantly warring, so the silver flowed out of Spain and to the Dutch merchants and English and Italian financiers, who used the silver to finance trade missions to China and the Indian Ocean - Eventually wound up in China - China had a huge demand for silver, to serve as a basis of its monetary system and to facilitate economic growth - Chinese valued silver so it was expensive there but cheap in the Americas

Where did most of the silver from the Americas go? Why?

- Vast majority ended up in Brazil or the Caribbean - Smaller numbers in North America, mainland Spanish America, or in Europe itself

Where did most slaves end up?

- A German Priest (1483-1546) - Invited debate about various abuses within the Roman Catholic Church by issuing a document (Ninety-Five Theses) and nailed it to the door of a church

Who was Martin Luther? What did he do?

- French in St. Lawrence Valley, around Great Lakes, and along Mississippi - British traders in the Hudson Bay region - Dutch along the Hudson river

Who was involved with the fur trade? Where was the fur trade located?

- Local officials appointed by the Mughals to collect taxes - Usually existing nobles in a particular region - Helpful for the Mughals because India is very diverse- appoint people who people are already familiar with in order to control or subdue the population - Collect taxes, serve as judges - Exercise some control in behalf of the emperor- declines as time goes on - Diverse religions - As the Mughal empire becomes less tolerant, they will exert more and more power and be less loyal to the emperor - Also provide an easy network for the British to eventually infiltrate and take over

Who were the Zamindars? How did their power fluctuate during the time period?

- European population growth and agricultural expansion had sharply diminished the supply of fur-bearing animals - Little Ice Age - Conditions pushed prices higher

Why did European demand for furs increase during this time period?

- Early efforts by Portuguese at slave raiding convinced the Europeans that efforts were unwise and unnecessary - Europeans died like flies when they entered the interior because they lacked immunities to common tropical diseases - Purchased slaves from merchants and exploited African rivalries to obtain slaves at lowest possible cost

Why did Europeans stay on the coast and not control the slave trade from the interior of Africa?

- Continued to operate broadly within a Confucian framework, enriched by the insights of Buddhism and Daoism - Neo-Confucianism - Ming rulers embraced and actively supported this native Confucian tradition - Manchu or Qing rulers did so to woo Chinese intellectuals to support the new dynasty - Kaozheng or "research based on evidence" ○ Was critical of the unfounded speculation of conventional Confucian philosophy and emphasized the importance of verification, precision, accuracy, and rigorous analysis ○ In Ming- generated works dealing with agriculture, medicine, pharmacology, botany, craft techniques, and more ○ In Qing- associated with the recovery and critical analysis of ancient historical documents, which sometimes led to criticism of Neo-Confucian orthodoxy. ○ Scientific approach to knowledge, applied to a study of the past

Why did Ming and Qing emperors support Confucian teaching?

- Their overall economy lagged behind but their naval technology and warfare had more than caught up - Military advantage allowed the Portuguese to establish fortified bases at key locations - They established themselves in the Indian Ocean trade

Why did Portugal need to use force to become more central to Asian trade networks?

- The Spanish realized that they were behind in the race to gain access to the riches of the East - In an effort to catch up, they established themselves on what became the Philippines - Established outright colonies - Conquest and colonization involved small-scale military operations, gunpowder weapons, local alliances, gifts and favors to chiefs, and the pageantry of Catholic ritual

Why did Spain conquer the Philippines as part of its empire?

- Trade, tribute, and warfare ensured that the ecologically and culturally different worlds were well known to each other - Undertook an 80 year military effort that brought these huge regions solidly under Chinse control

Why did the Manchus take over China?

- Failed to dominate Indian Ocean commerce - Gradually assimilated themselves to ancient patterns - Involved in selling their shipping services because of their inability to sell their products

Why did the Portuguese trading post empire decline?

- Densely settled peoples of Caribbean islands vanished within 50 years of Columbus' arrival

Why did the arrival of Europeans have such a significant impact?

- The scientific revolution happened in Europe because Europe was reinvigorated and fragmented civilization, with a guaranteed independence for institutions like the Church, towns and cities, and universities. - Universities were a "corporation of master and scholars" and "neutral zones of intellectual autonomy" where the study of natural order began to slowly separate itself from philosophy and theology. - Western Europe was in a position to draw extensively on the knowledge of other cultures, especially Islam. - In the sixteenth century, Europe became the center of new exchange of information. - The Reformation too contributed to the cultural climate in its challenge to authority, its encouragement of mass literacy, and its affirmation of secular professions.

Why did the scientific revolution happen in Europe and not in China or in the Islamic world?

- After 1433, Chinse authorities stopped such expeditions - Death of the emperor Yongle - High-ranking officials had seen the expeditions as a waste of resources because China was the middle kingdom

Why did the voyages of Zheng He end?

- Theological basis - Believed that salvation came through faith alone - Neither the good works of the sinner nor the sacraments of the Church had any bearing on the eternal destiny of the soul, for faith was a free gift of God, graciously granted to his needy and undeserving people - The source of these beliefs, and of religious authority in general, was not the teaching of the Church, but the Bible alone, interpreted according to the individual's conscience - Challenged the authority of the Church and called into question the special position of the clerical hierarchy and of the pope in particular

Why was Luther's thinking revolutionary?

- Portuguese relied on the natives who had little desire to work on farms and fled - Even enslaving the natives did little to resolve the labor shortage, leading to the use of African slaves - Portuguese had already worked our a slave-based plantation system for sugar production on the islands off the coast of Africa before they set out for "Asia" - Involved massive ecological change of tropical forests into sugar plantations and then the enslavement of the native people & importation of African slaves

Why was Portugal able to quickly create a plantation industry in Brazil?

- Many of the goods that were traded by the pochteca (professional merchants) were slaves destined for sacrifice - Rituals were central to Aztec religious life - Human sacrifice had a prominent role in public life - In Aztec beliefs, the sun (which was central in Aztec religion and culture as well as daily lives) tended to lose its energy in the battle against darkness. To replenish the energy, it required the life-giving force found in human blood - Through wars of expansion and from prisoners of war - Ideology also shaped techniques of Aztec warfare (capture rather than kill)

Why was human sacrifice such a central part of Aztec life?

- The scientific revolution was a vast intellectual and cultural transformation that took place between the mid-sixteenth and early eighteenth centuries. - These men of science would no longer rely on the external authority of the Bible, the Church, the speculations of ancient philosophers, or the received wisdom of cultural tradition. - The scientific revolution was significant because it altered ideas about the place of humankind within the cosmos and challenged both the teachings and authority of the Church. - It changed ancient social hierarchies and political systems and played a role in the revolutionary upheavals of the modern era. - It was also used to legitimize racial and gender inequalities. - It produced the marvels of modern production and the horrors of modern means of destruction. - Science became so widespread by the twentieth century that it lost its association with European culture and became the maker of global modernity.

Why was the scientific revolution significant?

- Demand for Silver was global - Silver was global- it transformed everywhere it touched

Why would it be considered the first global network of exchange?