blueprint exam psych-social
What is ingratiation?
the use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favor Ingratiation is an attempt to get someone to like you in order to get them to comply with your requests.
what are psychological disorders
the persistent, abnormal elevation and/or lowering of one's mood, which refers to a sustained, internal state of feeling or emotion.
what is low arousal state
A state of low arousal might involve drowsiness, lack of focus, boredom, and low energy overall. I
What is a neurotransmitter?
The compounds that neurons use to communicate with each other are known as neurotransmitters.
what is a Cross-sectional study
investigate a population at a single point in time, looking for predictive relationships among variables.
what is the first response to stress
"fight-or-flight" response, is physiological and is produced via a stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, causing the adrenal glands to release the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). This causes the increased heart rate and respiration rate characteristic of stressful encounters. Additionally, it directs blood flow away from the digestive system and to the musculoskeletal system, while also dulling pain.
what are cognitive biases
Cognitive biases are ways in which our perceptions and judgments systematically differ from reality.
what is optimal level arousal
- moderate arousal is generally best; when arousal is very high or very low, performance tends to suffer In other words, with too little arousal, the individual won't be sufficiently interested in the task at hand, but with too much, her efforts may be impaired by anxiety. Her performance would be best if she attained a level of moderate arousal instead. For example, imagine a student who is about to perform at his first piano recital. If he is completely unaroused - falling asleep, for example - he clearly won't perform at his best. But if he is extremely aroused to the point of being agitated, nervous, and jumpy, his performance at the recital is also likely to suffer.
what are basic drives
1. Hunger 2. Sex 3. Achievement
What does a 95% confidence interval mean?
A 95% confidence interval indicates that there is a 95% chance that the true value lies within a given range. This also means that there is a 5% chance that the true value is outside that range.
What is a confounding variable?
A confounding variable is one that is not typically of interest to the researcher but is an extraneous variable that is related to BOTH the dependent and independent variables. for example of a confounding variable You collect data on sunburns and ice cream consumption. You find that higher ice cream consumption is associated with a higher probability of sunburn. Does that mean ice cream consumption causes sunburn?
what is a continuous variable
A continuous variable can take on any number of values within a range (e.g., temperature).
what is a limitation of cross sectional study?
A limitation of cross-sectional designs is that they can show correlations, but not causation, because looking at changes over time is necessary to assess whether a cause-and-effect relationship is present.
What is the risk ratio?
A measure of the risk of a certain event happening in one group compared to the risk of the same event happening in another group Risk ratios compare the risk of multiple sclerosis in one group with the risk of multiple sclerosis in another group.
what is a mediating variable?
A mediating variable is one that explains the association between two other variables through a causal relationship.
what is mental set
A mental set refers to a framework used to try to solve a problem.
what does a p value of less than 0.05 mean
A p-value <0.05 indicates that there is a <5% chance of the observed relationship being due to chance, and this is the most commonly used threshold for deeming a result statistically significant. The power of a study refers to the ability of a study design to detect a real statistically significant effect, and it is primarily affected by the size of the study (larger samples have more power) and the size of the effect (larger effects are easier to identify).
what is positive correlation
A positive correlation occurs when an increase in one variable predicts an increase in the other,
what is a reference group
A reference group is any social group to which the individual can be socially compared.
What is a steryotype?
A stereotype is a prevalent but oversimplified idea or set of ideas about a certain group. This stereotyped group typically consists of people with similar characteristics (gender, race, sexual orientation, etc.). Stereotypes may sometimes be accurate, but since they are generalizations, even the most "harmless" stereotypes tend to obscure the nuances between individuals in the stereotyped group. In other instances, stereotypes are harmful outright, such as stereotypes that paint groups of people as unintelligent or lazy. A stereotyped individual who is aware of the stereotype may intentionally try to avoid fulfilling it, which can lead to stress and anxiety.
what is asch's study
A. In 1951, Solomon Asch conducted an experiment investigating the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could influence a person to conform. Asch used confederates who were instructed to give clearly incorrect answers regarding the lengths of various lines. He then measured the number of times each unknowing participant conformed to the majority view. Asch's study included 7 confederates who gave the same (incorrect or correct) response in each trial. That is, a participant had to make a decision after hearing 7 incorrect or else after 7 correct responses from confederates.
A study participant was asked to observe circular images and determine if they were the same size as a 10 cm2 circle. Circles with areas greater than or equal to 11 cm2 were perceived as different. If the participant was then asked to compare samples with a circle with an area of 200 cm2, Weber's law would predict that a circle of what area would be perceived as being of the same size? 109 cm2 175 cm2 218cm2 220cm2
A. 109 cm2 This answer is the result of miscalculation. Note that even if we do not remember the details of Weber's law, we can still answer this question using one easy trick! The question stem asks us to find the circle that would be perceived as the same size as a circle with an area of 200 cm2. Since there can only be one correct answer, we can simply choose the option with the closest area to 200 cm2. This gives us choice C, 218 cm2. B. 175 cm2 This answer is the result of miscalculation. Note that even if we do not remember the details of Weber's law, we can still answer this question using one easy trick! The question stem asks us to find the circle that would be perceived as the same size as a circle with an area of 200 cm2. Since there can only be one correct answer, we can simply choose the option with the closest area to 200 cm2. This gives us choice C, 218 cm2. C. 218 cm2 Weber's law asserts that perceptible differences are proportional to the initial perception. Thus, a 10% increase in area was perceptible. For this reason, the 9% increase in area reflected by choice C (200 to 218) would be perceived as the same size as before. D. 220 cm2 This answer is the result of miscalculation. Note that even if we do not remember the details of Weber's law, we can still answer this question using one easy trick! The question stem asks us to find the circle that would be perceived as the same size as a circle with an area of 200 cm2. Since there can only be one correct answer, we can simply choose the option with the closest area to 200 cm2. This gives us choice C, 218 cm2.
What type of conflict are the jurors in the study likely experiencing if they are unsure of the defendant's guilt? approach approach conflict avoidance avoidance conflict aproach avodidance conflict double approach avoidance conflict
A. Approach-approach conflict In approach-approach conflicts, two options are both appealing. B. Avoidance-avoidance conflict In avoidance-avoidance conflicts, both options are unappealing. C. Approach-avoidance conflict An approach-avoidance conflict is observed when one option has both positive and negative aspects, but there are two options in the question above. D. Double approach-avoidance conflict Double approach-avoidance conflicts consist of two options with both appealing and negative characteristics, which seems to represent the jury's dilemma. If they rule the defendant guilty, they would either be punishing a criminal (approach) or punishing an innocent (avoidance). If they rule the defendant innocent, they would either be letting a criminal walk away unpunished (avoidance) or freeing an innocent (approach).
What best describes the relationship between attribution theory and fundamental attribution error? A. Attribution theory states that attribute phenotypes are associated with inner psychological functioning, while fundamental attribution error refers to a misdiagnosis of psychological state based on overreliance on an attribute phenotype. B. Attribution theory relates to an attempt by an individual to interpret actions by assigning causes to them, while fundamental attribution error is when an individual interprets another's actions incorrectly by overemphasizing external events instead of internal characteristics. C. Attribution theory relates to an attempt by an individual to interpret actions by assigning causes to them, while fundamental attribution error is when an individual interprets another's actions incorrectly by overemphasizing internal characteristics instead of external events. D. Attribution theory states that attribute genotypes are associated with inner psychological functioning, while fundamental attribution error refers to a misdiagnosis of psychological state based on overreliance on an attribute genotype.
A. Attribution theory states that attribute phenotypes are associated with inner psychological functioning, while fundamental attribution error refers to a misdiagnosis of psychological state based on overreliance on an attribute phenotype. Attribution theory has no connection to the association between phenotypes and psychological functioning. Also, fundamental attribution error has nothing to do with overreliance on phenotype when making diagnoses. B. Attribution theory relates to an attempt by an individual to interpret actions by assigning causes to them, while fundamental attribution error is when an individual interprets another's actions incorrectly by overemphasizing external events instead of internal characteristics. The first part of this answer choice is correct, but the second part states the opposite of what a person overemphasizes when making a fundamental attribution error. C. Attribution theory relates to an attempt by an individual to interpret actions by assigning causes to them, while fundamental attribution error is when an individual interprets another's actions incorrectly by overemphasizing internal characteristics instead of external events. Attribution theory relates to the ways in which people attempt to explain various behaviors and events. Fundamental attribution error occurs when a person assigns too much weight to internal causes rather than external factors when trying to explain the cause of another person's behavior. D. Attribution theory states that attribute genotypes are associated with inner psychological functioning, while fundamental attribution error refers to a misdiagnosis of psychological state based on overreliance on an attribute genotype. Attribution theory has no connection to the association between genotypes and psychological functioning, and fundamental attribution error has nothing to do with overreliance on genotype when making diagnoses.
Which of the following would NOT be a way that a minority juror could increase the likelihood of persuading a majority juror? A Providing a favor to the other juror B. Being likeable C. Conveying the impression of scarcity of one's opinion D Obtaining a written commitment of agreement from a juror
A. Providing a favor to the other juror This is an example of reciprocity and it can influence others' behavior. B. Being likeable Being likable can influence others' behavior. C. Conveying the impression of scarcity of one's opinion In general, conveying scarcity can influence others, but in the case of an opinion, the more people that agree, the more likely others are to follow. Here, then, scarcity is not desirable. D. Obtaining a written commitment of agreement from a juror Obtaining verbal or written commitment can increase influence.
Which sequence properly indicates the order of transmission for the impulses that result from transcranial magnetic stimulation? A. Sensory neurons, cerebral cortex, afferent neurons, skeletal muscle cells B. Skeletal muscle cells, afferent neurons, spinal cord, cerebral cortex C. Cerebral cortex, spinal cord, efferent neurons, skeletal muscle cells Efferent neurons, afferent neurons, interneurons, cerebral cortex
A. Sensory neurons, cerebral cortex, afferent neurons, skeletal muscle cells We can immediately eliminate this option because it places afferent neurons directly before skeletal muscle cells. Efferent neurons, not afferent neurons, carry signals to skeletal muscle. B. Skeletal muscle cells, afferent neurons, spinal cord, cerebral cortex This choice does not end with skeletal muscle cells, so it can be eliminated. C. Cerebral cortex, spinal cord, efferent neurons, skeletal muscle cells The question is basically asking for the sequence in which information travels from the CNS to the periphery. This sequence is cerebral cortex → spinal cord → efferent neurons → interneurons → motor neurons → muscle tissue. D. Efferent neurons, afferent neurons, interneurons, cerebral cortex This choice does not end with skeletal muscle cells, so it can be eliminated.
What is Abraham Maslow best known for?
Abraham Maslow Abraham Maslow is better known for his involvement with the humanistic perspective of personality, where he formed the hierarchy of needs to describe the physiological and psychological needs humans require to be fulfilled.
What is an experimental study?
An experimental design involves manipulating a certain variable—known as an independent variable—to see what effects it has. The measured effects are known as dependent variables.
What is anticipatory socialization?
Anticipatory socialization refers to the process by which we prepare for future changes that we anticipate. For example, a security officer who will be switching to the night shift in a few weeks may prepare by shifting his or her sleep cycle, so as to anticipate the demands of the shift change
What are anxiety disorders?
Anxiety disorders involve a state of excessive apprehension, worry, or panic. This state of heightened physical arousal can be unpleasant and inhibit regular functioning. While most people feel anxiety occasionally, those with anxiety disorders experience it persistently, and it adversely impacts their lives.
What is attrition bias?
Attrition bias occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study.
what is social desirability bias
B. Social desirability bias Social desirability bias is a type of bias related to how people respond to research questions. The physicians may have known that the researcher was examining unethical behavior and responded a certain way. Because the topic is fairly sensitive, they may have also understated unprofessional behavior or responded in a way that they felt was most socially acceptable.
What is B.F. Skinner known for?
B.F. Skinner is more closely related to the behaviorist perspective of personality, where he studied the ability of operant conditioning to modify personality over time
what is deductive reasoning
Beginning with generalized principle and moving to specifics
what are beliefs
Beliefs reflect a shared cultural understanding of how the world works.
what is binocular vision
Binocular vision refers to the ability to use both eyes to form one cohesive image. Humans do use binocular vision; however, it is not something that is experienced by green cones in the retina, but rather a method by which we see in general.
what are the down side of inductive reasoning and what is the downside of deductive reasoning ?
Both inductive and deductive reasoning are common strategies that can produce good results. However, inductive reasoning is vulnerable to overgeneralizations, and deductive reasoning is profoundly dependent on the validity of the general principles.
what are examples of attitudes
Both stereotypes and prejudices The types of attitude in psychology that is often stated are Cognitive, behavioural and emotional.
what is deviance
Breaking a folkway or any other social norm is termed deviance
What is distress?
Distress is a negative type of stress that is detrimental to your health. It happens when you perceive a situation to be threatening to you in some way (physically or emotionally) and your body becomes primed to respond to the threat (I).
give an example of cannon brad theory
Cannon-Bard theory, posited that cognitive and physiological responses to a stimulus occur simultaneously and independently of one another, with a behavioral response following them. However, this theory still lacks any element of cognitive appraisal, or conscious thought about how one's situation may impact the emotion(s) felt.
what is causation bias
Causation bias refers to the tendency to infer cause-and-effect relationships that do not exist. This example involves predicting the outcome of a past intervention rather than determining whether an event causes another event. This is better aligned with hindsight bias.
what region of the brain is fear associated with
Certain emotions are associated with specific biological structures and processes; for example, fear is associated with increased activity in the amygdala, a limbic system structure found in the temporal lobes of the brain.
What is cognitive dissonance?
Cognitive dissonance Cognitive dissonance occurs when a person's attitudes, perceptions, or behaviors are inconsistent with one another. It can be resolved in various ways in order to minimize perceptions of inconsistency. In this case, participants' views of themselves as having strong ethical principles was incongruent with their behavior (i.e., not reporting unethical behavior). To resolve this incongruence, participants rationalized their behavior by downplaying their ability to make a difference, allowing them to maintain their view that they have high ethical standards
What is compliance?
Compliance is superficial, public change in behavior in response to group pressure.
what is compliance
Compliance is when an individual changes his or her behavior in response to a direct request, usually from a person or group that does not actually have authority to enforce that change.
What is confirmation bias?
Confirmation bias is a tendency that people have to focus on information that is in agreement with the beliefs they already have, rather than the information that is contrary to those beliefs.
what is the difference between conflict theorists and social fundamentalists
Conflict is a very strong driver of behavior. Social conflict can occur at the level of individuals, groups, or even society as a whole. The social conflict model posits that society is unequal, and inequalities present give rise to conflicts and change. Conflict theorists, therefore, seek to explain the workings and institutions of society as a result of competition over power, resources, or other forms of capital. In contrast to conflict theorists, social functionalists argue that differentiation within society leads to order and stability. To conflict theorists, differences between social groups or inequalities within society are characterized by a struggle for power in which individuals or groups seek to redress the unequal power relationship and those with power try to protect their privilege.
what is conflict theory
Conflict theory instead emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order. It sees society as fragmented into groups that compete for social and economic resources. Social order is maintained by those with the most power, usually those with the greatest political, economic, and social capital.
What is globalization?
Globalization is the increasing amount of interaction and integration on the international scale through exchange of products, services, ideas, and information.
What is Gordon Allport known for?
Gordon Allport is known in connection with the trait perspective of personality. He argued that three key types of traits contribute to personality: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits.
what is Dyads and triads
Dyads are groups made up of two people, and triads are groups made up of three people.
After the study, a male participant with a low perceived vulnerability contracts HIV. While the man is applying for a job, an employer discovers his HIV status. After failing to receive a job offer, the man concludes that he was not hired because of his condition. If true, the action of not hiring the man would best be considered an example of: A. stigma on the part of the participant. B. racism on the part of the employer. C. prejudice on the part of the employer. D. discrimination on the part of the employer.
D is the correct answer A. stigma on the part of the participant. Stigma is disapproval attached to disobeying the expected societal norms. There may have been a stigma around HIV/AIDS where the employer is from, but because an action is described, discrimination best fits the above scenario. B. racism on the part of the employer. Racism is the belief that all members of each race possess characteristics or abilities specific to that race, especially so as to distinguish it as inferior or superior to another race or races. This scenario does not describe any racial beliefs held by the employer. C. prejudice on the part of the employer. Prejudice refers to preconceived opinions or attitudes that are usually negative. Prejudice is an attitude, and discrimination is actually acting on that feeling. In the question, the employer acts on their negative attitude, so this would be an example of discrimination and not prejudice. D. discrimination on the part of the employer. Discrimination is the unfair treatment and harmful actions against others based on their membership in a specific social group. The above example is discrimination because there was an action attached to the employer's negative attitude.
what is educational segregation
Educational segregation describes imbalanced distributions of students in schools, typically based on race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status
what does deviance include
Deviance can include behavior generally perceived as "bad" or morally wrong, such as stealing. However, it can also include actions that contradict the norms of the time, but are later thought of as morally right, such as past civil rights movements.
what is Dissociative disorder?
Dissociative disorders involve the disruption or breakdown of perception, identity, memory, or awareness. Individuals with these conditions feel disconnected from reality. Often, this dissociation serves to provide an unintentional escape from reality or barrier against stress from a life event. for example: to escape thinking about a stressful event like failing an important test, the student day dreams about being the main role in a drama where two male leads are fighting to be her date to a party. in her head, the student creates dialogue, scenery etc. thinking about that senario makes her escape thinkining about failing her test.
what is educational stratification
Educational stratification describes the common situation in which people with more resources have access to more educational opportunities for example: if a school has a majority of students that are in a middle and upper-class status, the school is going to have more funding which means they will have more advanced classes and technology.
What is eidetic memory?
Eidetic memory (also called photographic memory) is a somewhat similar idea, but it's more focused on information recall and less associated with strong emotional experiences. It refers to the ability to remember a stimulus in great detail after a relatively short exposure. Claims regarding eidetic memory are quite common, and strong evidence supporting it is highly elusive, although individual variation certainly does exist in terms of memory storage. In any case, it's mostly worth being aware of for our purposes just so that you're not taken aback if you encounter it as a term
what is epidemiology
Epidemiology is the study of how health and illnesses are distributed across populations, and social epidemiology focuses on how societal factors influence this distribution.
What is episodic memory?
Episodic memory, instead, relates to our memory of experiences. Distinguishing among these types of memory is both useful from a broad conceptual perspective and for interpreting symptoms in patients with memory disorders.
what is explicit memory
Explicit memory is a type of long-term memory that refers to specific pieces of information, including recalling factual knowledge or specific events. Participants in the study responded to questions about whether they had seen certain figures, which reflects their memory about an event (i.e., the previous research session) and assesses explicit memory.
what is karl dunker's experimen
FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS In Duncker's candle problem, a participant is given a candle, a book of matches, and a box of thumbtacks, and is asked to figure out how to attach the candle to a wall in such a way that the candle wax won't drip down onto the floor. The solution to this problem is to remove the thumbtacks from the box, and then to tack the box to the wall to use as a candle-holder. However, many people have trouble seeing this solution because they only perceive the box as something that contains thumbtacks, not as an object that could be utilized for other purposes.
what is the lower class
Finally, the lower class contains approximately 14 to 20% of people, and includes poorly paid or impoverished people.
What is a fixed interval schedule?
Fixed-interval schedules are less resistant to extinction than variable-interval schedules. Generally speaking, fixed schedules are less effective than variable schedules.
what does a experiment have to have value
For an experiment or test to have value, it must be both reliable and valid.
what is an example of James lange theory
For example, if you are watching a scary movie, your heart rate may become elevated, and that leads to the perception of fear. However, this theory is limited, since certain physiological states may be experienced as different emotions depending on context (such as either fear or excitement).
what is functional fixideness
Functional fixedness refers to the tendency to see objects as serving only the purpose they were designed for. for example, if your dryer broke down and you need to dry your underwear quick what do you do? if you experience functional fixideness, you would message your neighbor and ask them to use their dryer. in this case you are fixated on the dryer as the only tool to dry clothes, but if you think outside of functional fixedness, you could use your hair dryer to dry your underwear in not time.
what is game theory
Game theory views social interaction as a game in which there will be winners, losers, and proper ways to "play" in order to achieve "victory."
what is the Hamilton depression rating scale HDRS
Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) inventory, which consists of a questionnaire measuring the severity of depression by rating certain depressive feelings and behaviors. Generally, a higher score on the HDRS indicates more severe depressive symptoms.
what is Hans Eysenck associated with
Hans Eysenck Hans Eysenck is noted for the first empirical study he published on genetics of personality in 1951, which investigated the trait of neuroticism in identical (i.e., monozygotic) and fraternal (i.e., dizygotic) twins.
what is Socioeconomic status (SES)
SES reflects an individual's position in the social hierarchy, as understood in terms of how that hierarchy is structured. SES attempts to quantify an individual's access to resources, such as material goods, money, power, social networks, healthcare, and education. It is access to these resources that enables individuals and/or groups to prosper in the social world.
what is Hidden curriculum
Hidden curriculum describes the norms, values, and behaviors that are imparted in an educational program, even though they are not officially part of the curriculum. beliefs and norms about unprofessional behavior (e.g., remaining quiet, obeying supervisors) that are often learned during medical school, but this culture that promotes unprofessional behavior is not an explicit part of any medical school curriculum.
What is Schater singer theory?
Schachter-Singer theory, thus stated that a stimulus first leads to physiological arousal, then a cognitive interpretation of the circumstances, and finally a perception of emotion. This resembles the James-Lange theory, but adds the element of cognitive appraisal, which helps explain how (for example) an elevated breathing rate can be interpreted as multiple different emotions based on context.
what are negative controls
Negative controls are treatments that are known to have no effect
What is schizophrenia?
Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder, meaning that sufferers experience at least one of the following symptoms: delusions, disorganized thoughts, disorganized behavior, hallucinations, catatonia, and negative symptoms.
what is secondary socialization
Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is acceptable and appropriate in a smaller, more focused section of society. Learning how to behave at school or in the workplace are examples of secondary socialization.
what is semantic memory also called
Semantic memory, also known as explicit and declarative memory,
what is procedural memory
Semantic memory, also known as explicit and declarative memory, refers to memory of specific pieces of information. The presence of several distinct names for this concept can be frustrating, but the key idea here is that this is the kind of memory that would pay dividends on a trivia night. Again, the focus is information
What is hindsight bias?
Hindsight bias refers to the tendency to believe that past events were highly predictable, even though those events were not predictable before they occured. This example describes current researchers who believed that a past event (the effectiveness of an intervention) was highly predictable, when it was not easy to predict at the time it occured.
what are primary and secondary groups
Primary groups have long-lasting, deep connections among members, and secondary groups are more superficial and short-lived.
Abnormal functioning of which brain region(s) plays a role in the development of depression? I. Frontal lobe II. Limbic system structures III. Hypothalamus
I, II, and III The frontal lobe is involved in humans' ability to project future consequences of current actions (I). Limbic system structures regulate emotion and memory (II), and the hypothalamus coordinates many hormones, some of which are involved in mood regulation (III). Therefore, abnormal functioning in any (or all) of the three could produce symptoms similar to depression. The lobes of the brain (left) and important limbic system structures (right) are displayed below.
Which of the following characteristics of multiple sclerosis could contribute to the development of an external locus of control? I. The etiology of multiple sclerosis is unclear, and there is no way to prevent the disease's development. II. Patients with multiple sclerosis often feel victimized by the disease, as it is an extremely disruptive force in their lives. III. The progression of multiple sclerosis is incredibly variable and unpredictable.
I, II, and III When a person has an external locus of control, they believe that they have no control over events in their lives and things that happen to them. All of the statements indicate characteristics of the disorder that are typically outside of a person's control: they develop the disease without knowing why it happened or the specific cause, they feel victims of the unpredictable and disruptive progression of the disorder and its symptoms, and they often have difficulty coping with the changes in their body and lifestyle that are completely out of their control. So, all of these factors can contribute to the development of an external locus control (I, II, III).
what is ionic memory
Iconic memory refers to how a highly-detailed visual image can remain in our perception for a brief period of time—on the order of a second or so—after the stimulus itself is removed or changed. Finally, prospective memory refers to memories related to plans to do something in the future.
What is internal validity?
If a study has internal validity, then the study has internally been well constructed, using things like large random samples, safeguards against confounding variables, reasonable and reliable processes and instruments, etc. If a study is internally valid, we can then assess whether it has external validity—can the results of the experiment be generalized to other settings? After all, if a study only shows that X is related to Y for this experimental group, then it's not very valuable for drawing conclusions about the larger population.
what is implicit memory
Implicit memory is a type of long-term memory that reflects knowing how to do something (e.g., being able to ride a bike). Participants in the study responded to explicit questions about whether they had seen figures, so they were not demonstrating how to do anything.
What is as strategy that a researcher can do to ensure that their data is accurate
In order to have confidence in their results, the researchers ensure both diversity and parity across treatment groups
what is in groups and out groups
In-groups and out-groups In-groups are categories that a person feels they belong to, and out-groups are groups that a person does not belong to and may feel animosity or superiority toward. using inclusive language such as "us" represents an in-group, signifying belonging. Language like "them" represents an out-group, signifying distance and distinction.
What is incidence?
Incidence describes the number of new cases of a disease (for example multiple sclerosis) during a specific time interval (a year).
what is an example of intrinsic behavior
Instincts are innate, unlearned, and usually fixed patterns of behavior that are, in general, present in all members of a species. One example found in humans is the instinct to suckle: babies do not need to be taught how to suckle milk from their mothers or bottles.
what are responses to elevated stress
Irritability, moodiness, tenseness, and feelings of helplessness are some of the emotional responses that result from elevated stress.
what is residual image
It is true that the participants did see a residual image. However, this question asks what happened to the green cones in the retina. The residual image was visible specifically because green cones had become desensitized.
what is locus of control
Locus of control is the extent to which people believe they have control of their lives and the events that affect them. People with an internal locus of control believe that they have control over situations and events, that their actions can contribute to influencing the outcomes as opposed to people with an internal locus of control for example: a student fails a test. having an internal locus of control, the student will blame the performance of his test on his lack of preparation or because he went to a party the night before. having an external locus of control, the student will say that the teacher asked unfair questions, or he was trying to get him.
what is long term memory
Long-term memory is, as the name suggests, long-term — on a scale ranging from hours to years. Of note, there's not thought to be any particular limit on the number of items that we can store in long-term memory.
what is medicalization
Medicalization describes the social processes that contribute to the identification and treatment of certain medical problems, for example, society's treatment of addiction as a medical problem rather than a moral failing
what is the actor-observer bias.
Moreover, we often blame our own actions on external situations but the actions of others on personality.
what is mortality
Mortality rates describe the number of deaths caused by a disease like multiple sclerosis within a specific population and a certain amount of time.
what is motivation
Motivation refers to the driving force or reasoning behind our actions and behaviors.
what is MS disease
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic progressive disorder that affects the central nervous system by damaging the flow of information throughout the brain and the rest of the body.
what is something that can be a source of bias in a study
Non-random sampling can introduce important sources of bias, which can limit the validity of the study.
What is nonverbal communication?
Nonverbal communication can be symbolic, while other symbols are inanimate objects. Language, written or oral, is one of the most important symbolic aspects of culture. In addition to its symbolic aspects, languages allows for social communication on a much more complex level than would be otherwise possible.
what are norms
Norms are enforced by sanctions, which are punishments for deviations from the norm or rewards for acting in accordance with it.
What is inter-rater reliability?
One other form of reliability is inter-rater reliability. That means that if an assessment is carried out by different researchers, they should generate similar results. For example, the SAT includes an essay that a person grades on a scale of 1-6. The SAT essay has good inter-rater reliability because the same essay will be given the same (or nearly the same) score regardless of which person scores it.
what is the Yerkes-Dodson law?
One particularly important element of arousal theory is the Yerkes-Dodson law, which states that performance of a behavior tends to be negatively impacted at high and low levels of arousal
what are opiod analgesics?
Opioid analgesics mimic the effect of a group of hormones called endorphins, which naturally inhibit pain by blocking the release of certain neurotransmitters at nociceptors. Endorphins are produced in the anterior pituitary gland, along with other hormones such as luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and growth hormone (GH).
example of a variable that reflects symbolic interactionism perspective
Participants' level of exposure to different races and classes
example of a variable that reflects cognitive psychology
Participants' mental states during the study
example of a variable that reflects social constructionsim
Participants' views of biology versus social constructs
what is paul ekman associated with
Paul Ekman described seven universal human emotions: anger, contempt, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.
what is an external locus of control and give an example
People with an external locus of control believe that they have no control over situations and events, that only outside forces contribute to influencing the outcomes. For an example, imagine a rising high school senior who has just received his AP Biology scores back. He got a 3, much lower than he expected. He can either attribute that loss internally and say, "I didn't study enough," or he can attribute it externally and say, "The teacher didn't prepare us well enough" or "I was so tired and sick for the test, or maybe they got the score wrong?"
what is something that can introduce a higher statistical power to your results when you are doing an experiment
Sample size (usually denoted with N) is simply the number of data points developed in an experiment. this usually means the number of people or number of organisms in the experiment. The larger the sample size, the higher the statistical power of the experiment. While more is always better, it is usually impossible to test every possible case or every possible person, so a smaller sample of the whole must be taken.
What is persuasion?
Persuasion is a form of social influence in which an individual or group (the audience) is encouraged to adopt an idea, attitude, or course of action.
what is population growth
Population growth is the increase in the number of individuals within a population.
What is prevalence?
Prevalence rates describe how common a disease like multiple sclerosis is. More specifically, they tell us how many people (new cases and current cases) have multiple sclerosis within a certain amount of time
what is reconstructive bias
Reconstructive bias is a type of bias related to memory. Most research on memories suggests that our memories of the past are not as accurate as we think, especially when we are remembering times of high stress.
what are reference and comparison groups
Reference groups are the groups a person compares themselves to, synonymous with a comparison group.
what is reliability
Reliability refers to how consistent and repeatable an experiment or assessment is.
what is response bias
Response bias Response bias is inaccurate responding by participants who provide self-reports in a study. The physicians in this study were reporting on what they observed, which could be affected by response bias
what are risk factors
Risk factors are any variables that increase the likelihood of having or developing a certain illness.
What are rituals?
Rituals are actions or routines that have a specific script.
what is semantic memory
Semantic memory, also known as explicit and declarative memory, refers to memory of specific pieces of information. The presence of several distinct names for this concept can be frustrating, but the key idea here is that this is the kind of memory that would pay dividends on a trivia night. Again, the focus is information
what is sensory memory
Sensory memory Sensory memory is virtually instantaneous and operates on the order of seconds, so it does not apply to a recall task one month after the study.
what is sensory memory
Sensory memory is virtually instantaneous; the idea here is that in any given moment in time, we're taking in and temporarily storing a vast amount of information that will decay very quickly, on the order of seconds, without rehearsal, or a conscious decision to pay attention to or to reinforce the memory
what is short term memory
Short-term memory describes our ability to store information on that time scale, and it's generally thought to have a relatively small capacity. The traditional guideline to describe the limits of short-term memory storage is the 7 ± 2 rule, which states that we can generally hold roughly 5 to 9 items in our short-term memor
what is a scociobiologist theory
Sociobiology holds that some social differences are actually rooted in biology. This theory applies evolutionary biology to help explain social behaviors. An example of a linkage between biology and behavior is that FEV knockout mice show much more aggressive and violent behavior compared with wild-type mice, suggesting that the FEV transcription factor plays a role in regulating aggression and aggressive behavior.
what are types of norms
Some norms are formal, meaning that they are written, explicit, and generally enforced with penalties; laws are classic examples of formal norms. In contrast, informal norms are generally understood but implicit, unwritten, and not associated with criminal or legal penalties for their violation.
what is stress
Stress is a psychological and physiological state of emotional or mental strain which results from having to face a difficult circumstanc
What is symbolic interactionism?
Symbolic interactionism focuses on the symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interactions. Smoking is an excellent example, because the social symbolism of smoking is a point of contention across social groups. In previous years—and to some extent in certain social circles now—smoking was seen as trendy, whereas in others it may be seen negatively as a symbol of poor self-regard and ignorance.
What are symbols?
Symbols are representations that provide cultural meaning (e.g., in the US a Bald eagle can represent freedom)
What is test-test reliability?
Test-test reliability refers to the fact that a good test should give stable results over time. For example, if you took the MCAT once a year every year without doing any prep or practice, you would get basically the same results every time because the MCAT has good test-test reliability
What is ethnocentrism?
The belief that our own group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures
agents of socialization,
The factors that drive and have the most influence over our socialization
what are the subtypes of long term memory
The following main types of long-term memory can be distinguished: semantic memory or explicit memory, procedural memory or implicit memory, and episodic memory.
What is the foot-in-the-door technique?
The foot-in-the-door technique says that when someone has agreed to make a small commitment towards something, they are then much more likely to follow up with a greater commitment.
fundamental attribution error
The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to place less importance on the import of a situation or context on behavior, and instead place undue emphasis on dispositional or internal qualities in order to explain behavior. In other words, we have a tendency to think that people are how they act.
what is the categories/ classification of memory
The highest-level classification of memory separates it into three categories according to duration: sensory memory, short-term memory or working memory, and long-term memory
what is the lower middle class?
The lower middle class, which contains 32% of people, accounts for semi-professionals and craftsmen with some college education, typically with an annual salary in the mid-five figures.
how do you statistically express how strong the correlation is
The strength of a correlation is usually expressed as r, which can range from -1 to 1. An r value of 0 expresses no correlation whatsoever, while r values of -1 and 1 correspond to perfect negative and positive correlations, respectively. The strength of intermediate r values must be interpreted in context;
What is the door-in-the-face technique?
The opposite approach is often called the "door-in-the-face" technique, wherein the initial request is unreasonably large and is therefore rejected. The initial large request is then followed by a smaller, more reasonable-sounding request that is much more likely to be accepted. Persuasive techniques may include the use of rewards or punishments (social or material), positive or negative expertise, and many others
what does the optimal level of arousal graph look like
The optimal level of arousal is somewhere between the two, creating an upside-down U-shaped function when arousal is graphed on the x-axis and performance on the y-axis
example of a variable that reflects functionalism
The purpose of participants' classifications
what does R2 tell us about correlation
The related value of R2 expresses how well the regression line (the line of best fit) captures the data point, with 1 indicating a perfect correspondence between the regression line and the data and 0 indicating no correspondence.
what is group think
The related, but distinct, concept of groupthink refers to when a group of people has such a strong desire for harmony and individual conformity that the group makes irrational decisions.
What is the representativeness heuristic?
The representativeness heuristic is the tendency to make decisions about actions or events based upon our standard representations of those events or a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case
what is a social constructionism critique of gender
The tendency for women in the workplace to use consensus-building as the best problem-solving approach is a consequence of females being told that it's important to "be a good girl" while growing up.
what are the three component of emotion
The three components of emotion are behavioral (action), which includes body language and facial expression, cognitive (mind), or the brain's subjective interpretation of the feeling, and physiological (body), which includes changes in heart rate, respiration, and so on, often stemming from arousal of the sympathetic nervous system.
what is a cause of health disparities
The uneven distribution of risk factors across population results in health disparities, which can exist based on geography, gender, environment, socioeconomic status, ethnicity/race, and access to healthcare, among other variables.
What is the upper class?
The upper class contains 1% of people, including celebrities, business executives, heirs, and other extremely wealthy people, typically with an annual salary greater than $500,000
What is the upper middle class?
The upper middle class, which contains 15% of people, accounts for highly-educated professionals and managers, typically with an annual salary ranging from the high five figures to well over $100,000.
what is the working class
The working class, which also contains 32% of people, accounts for clerical and blue-collar workers who often have low job security, little to no college education, and who make between $16,000 and $30,000 annually.
what is the correlation (if any) with depression and the locus of control
There is a correlation between depression and locus of control. When two variables are correlated, they change together; at the end of the study, those with an external LOC showed higher levels of depression, whereas those with an internal LOC showed lower levels of depression, which suggests a correlation between LOC and depression.
what is the correlation if any between anxiety and self efficacy
There is more likely a negative correlation between anxiety and self-efficacy (e.g., participants with an external LOC had higher anxiety and lower self-efficacy).
What are mood disorders?
These conditions include bipolar disorders, which are marked by swings between extreme moods. These moods may include depression (a state of persistent sadness and lack of energy) and mania (a high-energy state marked by poor judgment, lack of sleep, and euphoria) Another mood disorder is major depressive disorder, which is characterized by at least one major depressive episode (a period of depression lasting at least two weeks).
What is external validity?
To have external validity, an experiment must tightly control any situational variables in the execution of the study. does the study have external meaning outside the scope of the study? for example polulation or ecological validity
what are trauma related stress disorders
Trauma and stress-related disorders typically arise in response to a highly stressful or traumatic life event. The most common example is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which often manifests in people who experienced warfare, sexual assault, or serious injury. PTSD can cause symptoms such as nightmares, flashbacks, and a propensity to avoid stimuli associated with the event.
what is rational choice theory
Turning to how individuals make choices, rational choice theory posits that people make individualistic, rational, and calculated decisions about all things in their lives Since money is of primary importance to most people, individuals are often motivated by money and will calculate the costs and benefits of any action before deciding what to do.
what does it mean if two variables are correlated
Two variables are correlated if an increase (or decrease) in one variable predicts an increase or decrease in the other.
how would you describe correlations in a graph
Typically, correlations are linear, which means that a line of best fit can be drawn to express the statistical trend a fixed increase in one variable predicts a fixed increase/decrease in the other variable. However, nonlinear relationships can also exist. An example is gravity, which is proportional to the inverse square of the distance between two objects.
what is urbinization
Urbanization is the pattern of movement from rural areas to cities. In this scenario, the rural areas do not have enough resources to support this population, so the people are moving to Benin City, a classic example of urbanization.
What is validity?
Validity is a measure of how well a given experiment actually measures what it sets out to measure.
What are values?
Values reflect beliefs about how the world should be, including how people should act and what should be prioritized in life.
what is variable interval schedule?
Variable-interval schedules are less resistant to extinction than variable-ratio schedules. Generally speaking, interval schedules are less effective than ratio schedules.
what is variable ratio
Variable-ratio reinforcement schedules tend to produce the highest response rates that are the most resistant to extinction, which is exactly why casinos use them.
what is vertical mobility
Vertical mobility is the movement from one social level to a higher one or a lower one.
What is retinal disparity?
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
what is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?
We can apply either deductive or inductive reasoning to solve problems. Deductive reasoning is top-down; it involves applying general principles to a specific situation. For example, if we're trying to find a drug that will interact with a certain receptor, we might notice that its active site is rich in positively-charged residues, and apply the general principle that opposite charges attract to predict that a negatively-charged molecule would interact with that receptor. inductive reasoning is a bottom-up process, where successive observations are extrapolated to identify general principles. In our example of drug design, we might test various compounds for interactions with the receptor and gradually notice that compounds richer in negatively-charged atoms interact more closely with the positively-charged active site, based on which we might formulate the principle that oppositely-charged amino acids are attracted to each other.
how do agents of socialization differ when you are a kid vs teen vs adult
When we are children, the primary drivers of socialization are our parents and family life. When we are teenagers, our social circles have a strong influence on our socialization. By the time we are adults, the workplace, as well as media, can have a strong effect on how we develop our habits.
what is pupillary constriction.
Withdrawal from addictive substances tends to produce the opposite effect of symptoms that occur while using the substances. Pupillary constriction is a physiological response to opioid use
what is working memory
Working memory refers to the mental operations performed on information in short-term memory. It operates on the order of seconds, so it does not apply to a recall task one month after the study.
what is working memory
Working memory, instead, focuses more on the cognitive and attentional processes that we use to perform mental operations on information that we're holding in our short-term memory. Working memory is thought to draw on a capacity known as the visuospatial sketchpad, which describes a buffer of sorts that is used to hold onto visual and spatial information as it is processed by working memory.
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
What is learned helplessness?
a condition in which a person suffers from a sense of powerlessness, arising from a traumatic event or persistent failure to succeed. It is thought to be one of the underlying causes of depression. viewing enough of life with an external locus of control, people can stop making decisions and actions in situations, having no confidence that they have control over them. This phenomenon, learned helplessness, is also associated with prolonged stress.
What is a moderating variable?
a factor that affects the relationship between the independent and dependent variables A moderating variable modulates the intensity of a certain relationship
What is a fixed ratio schedule?
a fixed-ratio schedule might involve the delivery of a reward for every fifth response. After the subject responds to the stimulus five times, a reward is delivered Fixed-ratio schedules are less resistant to extinction than variable-ratio schedules. Generally speaking, fixed schedules are less effective than variable schedules.
what is an example of high arousal state?
a high-arousal state resembles what you may have experienced after drinking too much coffee, with an extreme feeling of being awake and even jitters and restlessness.
What is randomization?
a process of choosing the members of the experimental and control groups without bias
what is a core component of emotion
action, body, mind
what are secondary drives
additional drives that are not directly related to biological processes secondary drives are not based on biological needs. Instead, they stem from learning and experiences. Secondary drives can include feelings such as love and aggression.
what is considered material culture?
all of the physical objects used in a society for example: artifacts, art, buildings, and physical objects
What is the posterior pituitary?
an extension of the hypothalamus The primary hormones produced by the posterior pituitary are vasopressin, involved in fluid reuptake in the kidney, and oxytocin, a hormone associated with emotional bonding.
what is arousal in psychology
arousal refers to one's mental alertness, attentiveness, and general awakeness
what is avalibility heuristic?
availability heuristic is the tendency to make decisions about how likely an action or event is based upon how readily available similar information is in our memories.
what is an example of ethnocentrism
belief of superiority of ones ethnic group, but it can also be belief of superiority of religion or race. a mom tells her Arab daughter not to play with a Kurdish classmate
Participants on the mock jury were later presented with new information indicating they had made the wrong decision. However, most of them maintained that their original decision was correct. Which phenomenon does this represent?
belief perseverance
what is belief perseverance and why is it a problem
belief perseverance refers to people's tendency to maintain their beliefs—or sometimes even strengthen them—in the face of contradictory evidence. Belief perseverance is a major concern in public health, especially with regard to the rising tide of anti-vaccination beliefs in the United States and Europe in recent years. Physicians and public health advocates have found that directly challenging patients, or their parents, about the efficacy of vaccines can backfire and even generate more resistance, and are therefore brainstorming ways to communicate effectively with patients about this issue. Inaccurate assumptions about one's own level of skill or expertise can also get in the way of problem-solving. Being too sure of oneself is known as overconfidence, which can interfere with solving problems effectively by making one less likely to even perceive a problem in the first place, and if a problem is perceived, by making one more likely to jump in with a hasty, inappropriate solution. Overconfidence may also be linked to belief perseverance, although it's certainly not the only explanation for it. Underconfidence can also be an impediment to problem-solving, though, since someone who does not consider themselves capable of solving a problem is unlikely to put much effort into doing so, especially when initial attempts don't succeed.
what is inductive reasoning
bottom-up reasoning where you create a theory via generalizations. Not as fool proof as deductive reasoning
what is another term for bystander apathy
bystander effect
What is a psychological disorder?
certain mental conditions can seriously impair a person's ability to function in professional and personal life. These conditions are termed psychological disorders, and they can be categorized into several groups.
what are the effects of a psychological disorder
characterized by long-lasting, maladaptive patterns of behavior that can impair cognition, emotion, interpersonal behavior and communication, and/or impulse control.
What is the Chi-square test?
checks whether a distribution is significantly different than an expected or theoretical distribution
It can be inferred that a person who has lost sight in one eye will come to predominantly use which of the following types of information to perceive depth? I. Binocular vision II. The clarity of objects III. Retinal disparities
clarity of objects
is persuasion a form of coercive methods
coercive methods, which actively threaten or intimidate the audience to achieve the desired goal, persuasion is non-compulsory.
what are the types of research researchers can use
cross-sectional design or an experimental design.
what is the second response to stress
cognitive, initiating when the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to produce adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which in turn stimulates the release of cortisol from the adrenal glands. Cortisol helps the body to maintain the continuous supply of blood sugar needed to sustain a stress response by upregulating gluconeogenesis and mobilizing free fatty acids and amino acids from body stores to be metabolized. This makes more glucose available, which is necessary for proper brain function during times of stress because the brain's only energy source is glucose. If cortisol release continues for too long a period, the healthy functioning of white blood cells can be inhibited, making the immune system weaker and thus the body more susceptible to illness and infection.
what is social conformity
conformity, is the tendency for individuals to adopt the behaviors, attitudes, and values of other members of a reference group. A reference group is any social group to which the individual can be socially compared. An individual's degree of social conformity can be thought of as indicating how "normal" they act, but a more accurate statement is that conformity indicates the degree to which an individual's behavior corresponds to expected social norms, rules, and customs.
What is construct validity?
construct validity refers to how well a given assessment (a survey, a test, etc.) actually measures what it claims to measure— whether it has been proproperly constructed to measure the relevant thing.
A private school sets up a system by which students may advance to the next grade solely on the basis of their individual performance on an exam. Given the wide variety of talents each student has, some students are able to advance to the next grade months or even years before other students. This system is: 1a meritocracy. 2an oligarchy. 3guaranteed to generate student failure. 4an example of spatial discrimination.
correct answer is : meritocracy A. a meritocracy. Meritocracy is a system under which individuals are rewarded on the basis of individual skill, talent, or achievement. The school's testing system rewards students for success on this test, thus creating a meritocracy. B. an oligarchy. An oligarchy is a system in which a small number of individuals hold the majority of the power. This does not align with the description in the question stem. C. guaranteed to generate student failure. This statement is extreme ("guaranteed") and completely unsupported. D. an example of spatial discrimination. Spatial discrimination typically refers to one's ability to distinguish between two points of contact with one's skin. In other words, this choice relates to sensation and has nothing to do with the meritocratic system described in this question.
what does MS cause
debilitating symptoms that can affect nearly every function of the body. Symptom severity can stabilize or worsen over time, creating unpredictability that could result in difficulty coping, decreased self-efficacy, changes in health locus of control (LOC), and decreased quality of life.
What is deindividuation?
describes how people lose their sense of self-awareness in a large group setting, which provides a high degree of arousal and a low sense of responsibility. The main factors that contribute to deindividuation are anonymity, diffused responsibility, and group size.
what is discrimination
discrimination involves action - the irrational, often negative treatment of a person or group as a result of prejudice. When this action is undertaken by an individual independent of larger organizations, it is termed individual discrimination. (For example, an employer who holds the prejudice that women are unintelligent may discriminate by refusing to hire them.) Often, though, discrimination is written into the laws, policies, and unwritten procedures of society. This is termed institutional discrimination. One example would be a mortgage policy that, due to its requirements, makes it particularly difficult for ethnic minorities to obtain loans
What is an analgesic?
drug that relieves pain
What is normative influence?
even though you have background knowledge, you conform to the group to avoid being a social outcast Normative influence is an influence to conform with the expectations of others to gain social approval.
is there any benefit of having an internal locus of control as opposing to external locus of control, explain your answer
external locus of control was related to decreased self-efficacy and increased symptom severity, anxiety, stress, and depression, whereas internal locus of control was related to decreased symptom severity, anxiety, stress, and depression
what are the types of motivation
extrinsic motivation; intrinsic motivation
What is stress?
feelings of stress are indicative of the relationship between psychological and physiological experiences: stressful experiences can cause us mental anxiety while the body develops symptoms.
What is a flashbulb memory?
flashbulb memory refers to how people experienced of having an extremely vivid and detailed memory of important moments in their lives, either positive or negative ones. The metaphor here is from photography; it's like the flash of a camera goes off and imprints all the details of a consequential moment in our mind
what is functionalism
functionalism views society as a system of interconnected parts that carry out a specific role that enables them to cooperate to maintain social equilibrium for society as a whole. An important point is that these perspectives do not contradict each other; instead, the MCAT tends to ask which theoretical approach is exemplified by a given statement.
what is informational influence
going along with the crowd because you think the crowd knows more than you do Informational influence is an influence to accept information from others as evidence about reality, and can come into play when we are uncertain about information or what might be correct.
what is Social facilitation
he tendency that people have to perform simple tasks better or more efficiently when in the presence of other people. Inversely, when performing a complex or new task, the presence of others can hinder one's performance. In contrast, social loafing is the tendency that people have to put in less effort in a group setting, particularly if the group is being evaluated as a whole and not on an individual basis
What is a heuristic?
heuristics refers to mental shortcuts or simplified iterations of principles that can help us make decisions, but can also lead to poor judgment.
what is strain theory
if a person is blocked from attaining a goal that society says is commendable, they will turn to deviance to achieve that goal Social pressure can backfire, as in the case of strain theory, which is the idea that when social pressure is placed on those who do not have the means to follow it and succeed, they may turn to crime and other deviant behavior.
what is procedural memory also called
implicit memory,
what are signs of opioid withdrawal
increased perspiration (sweating) tremors increased anxiety.
Laws passed to introduce specific penalties for cyberbullying and online harassment can be described as attempts to transform:
informal norms to formal norms
what are some guidelines that studies on humans must follow
informed consent, in which the subject is adequately informed about the nature of the process, and then is mentally and legally competent to give consent to it.
What is the adrenal medulla?
inner portion of the adrenal gland The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, the primary hormones associated with the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
What is emotion?
instinctive, current state of mind, based upon mood, circumstances, and interactions with others. Emotion often influences problem-solving, decision-making, and social interaction.
What is socialization?
is the lifelong process through which people inherit, develop, and disseminate social norms, customs, and belief systems. It is through socialization that we develop the habits and skills necessary for successfully living in society.
Resocialization
is the process through which we get rid of old behaviors in order to take on new ones. The training of soldiers to obey orders and behave within the rigorous confines of military life is an example of resocialization.
what is Group polarization
is the tendency that groups have to make decisions that are notably more extreme than the initial, individual opinions of their members.
what is a belief bias
is the tendency that people have to judge things based not upon sound logic, but upon already held beliefs.
what are standards
morals, ethics, or habits established by an authority, custom, or an individual as acceptable behavior These standards are norms, or spoken or unspoken rules regarding the behavior, beliefs, and values of members of the society.
what are types of informal norms
mores and folkways.
what is an example of deviance
most Americans eat meat, but someone who's vegetarian is deviant.
What is extrinsic motivation?
motivation by external factors or rewards extrinsic motivations are created by external forces, These forces include attitudes, or ways of thinking or feeling about people, places, and things that are reflected in our actions and our behaviors.
what are high level desires
needs are rooted in higher-level desires. For example, a young person may aspire to be a doctor not just for the financial reward, but out of as desire to help others.
what is negative correlation
negative correlation occurs when an increase in one variable predicts a decrease in the other. for example: if you miss class a lot your grades will go down.
A parent tells his child that if she spends an hour practicing the piano that evening, she will be allowed to skip her chores the next morning. The parent is using:
negative reinforcement
what is neustress?
neutral type of stress. doesnt affect you really (like news of natural disaster in another country)
What are folkways?
norms that are not strictly enforced folkways are informal norms that have less significance attached to them but that still influence everyday behavior. Breaking a folkway usually brings with it less severe consequences than breaking a more. For example, if someone is at a fancy steak dinner and begins eating with their hands, he or she is breaking a folkway.
What is the adrenal cortex?
outer portion of the adrenal gland It produces hormones that support vital organ functions and bodily processes. The adrenal cortex makes androgen and corticosteroid hormones.
why are people still motivated to do things even when their instincts are fulfilled
people are still motivated to do things, sometimes out of boredom and sometimes out of curiosity. That is, some behaviors are motivated by a desire to achieve an optimal level of arousal (the physiological state of being reactive to stimuli). If a person is not stimulated enough and is below their optimal level of arousal, their desire for arousal may motivate an action, decision, or behavior.
what are positive controls
positive controls are treatments that are known to have a certain effect and can therefore be used to assess whether the experimental methodology was sound
What is eustress?
positive stress that motivates you
what is arousal theory
posits that people behave or act in certain ways to maintain a level of optimal arousal, which varies from person to person.
What is prejudice?
prejudices are typically made with little to no experience with the prejudiced person or group, and they may be irrationally positive or negative.
what is not a sign of opiod withdrawal
pupillary constriction.
what are intrinsic motivation
pursuit of activity for its own sake while intrinsic motivations are created by internal forces.
what is qualitative research ?
qualitative research focuses on analyzing experiences rather than objective metrics especially in the social sciences
Primary socialization
refers to the learning of acceptable actions and attitudes during childhood, mostly from observation of our parents, siblings, friends, teachers, and other authority figures.
What are SSRIs?
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a common medication used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, and other psychological disorders They prevent the re-absorption and breakdown of serotonin- so increases the levels in the synapse.This continues the stimulation to the post synaptic neuron
what is social exchange theory
social exchange theory views society as a series of interactions that are based on estimates of rewards and punishments. Similar to rational choice theory, social exchange posits that interactions are determined by the rewards or punishments that we receive from others. For example, if a relationship partner become "more trouble than he or she is worth," the person may decide to end the relationship.
what is a way societies discourage deviance
societies use many forms of social control, or formal and informal methods of encouraging adherence to norms. One example is stigma, or the extreme disapproval and rejection targeted toward those thought to have broken important norms, such as those who commit incest.
What is the bystander effect?
sometimes referred to as bystander apathy, is a phenomenon of group psychology in which people do not offer help to a victim if there are other people (bystanders) present. The likelihood of responding and helping a victim is inversely related to the number of bystanders: the more bystanders there are, the less likely anyone is to help.
what does p value mean
statistical significance is expressed using p-values, which express the likelihood of a certain result being due to chance given a certain null hypothesis, which usually refers to the absence of a relationship between the variables of interest. A p-value <0.05 indicates that there is a <5% chance of the observed relationship being due to chance, and this is the most commonly used threshold for deeming a result statistically significant.
what is stigma
stigma, which refers to strong social disapproval and even outright rejection of a stigmatized group. Typically, stigma is reserved for people or groups who break important social norms. Unlike stereotype and prejudice, stigma is always a highly negative perception.
what are three main high level sociological theories
symbolic interactionism, conflict theory, and functionalism.
how are societies held together
systems both explicit and implicit
what is social learning
that social behavior is learned by observing and imitating the behavior of other
what is strain theory
traces the origins of deviance to the tensions that are caused by the gap between societal goals and the means people have available to achieve said goals. The related concept of anomie describes social instability caused by the breakdown of social bonds, such as social norms, between individuals and communities.
D. true or false binocular vision and retinal disparities are perceived through the use of both eyes in conjunction. If there is only one eye available for sight, the individual will likely use context clues, such as the clarity of objects, to perceive depth
true
what are cognitive biases
ways in which our perceptions and judgments systematically differ from reality. They are generally thought to be unavoidable features of our cognitive system, and may in some cases be adaptive
What is a drive?
urge that results from an urge to reach a goal or satisfy a need
What is logistic regression?
used when you want to use predictor variables but you don't have a discrete criterion variable
does strong correlation mean causation?
we must keep in mind that correlation does not automatically indicate causation. For example, the rise in global temperatures from the 1700s to now shows a strong negative correlation with the presence of pirates in the Caribbean, although we know that global warming did not cause pirates to disappear.
what is considered symbolic or non-material culture
what are ideas, beliefs and symbols
what are mores ? give an example
widely observed social norms are informal norms that carry major importance for society and, if broken, can result in severe social sanctions. For example, imagine a young woman who is unmarried but decides to live with her boyfriend. Her parents are very religious and belong to a community in which only married couples are supposed to live together. In the parents' eyes, the daughter has broken a more, and the parents will levy sanctions accordingly.
