BMS2011

Fibrous Tunic - Sclera

("white of the eyes") Outermost layer but deep to conjunctiva anteriorly Continuous with cornea Tough fibrous connective tissue Function: Protection, support, extraocular muscle attachment

Appendicular skeleton

(126 bones) portion of the skeleton that attaches to the axial skeleton and has the limbs attached to it

Axial skeleton

(80 bones) skull, spinal column, sternum and ribs

Musculocutaneous nerve

(C5-C7) arises form lateral cord exits axilla and innervates the muscles of the anterior compartment of arm. Supplies skin of forearm. Continues as lateral cuteness nerve of forearm

Radial nerve

(C5-T1) originates from posterior cord continuing along dorsal side of humerus. Exits axillary region posterior to axillary region and enters cubital fossa dividing into superficial (cutaneous) and deep (motor) radial nerves. It supplies all muscles of posterior compartments of arm and forearm

median nerve

(C6-T1) formed by lateral and medial cords forms on lateral aspect of the axillary artery and descends through arm next to brachial artery (medial side), becoming anterior to artery at cubital fossa. It supplies muscles of the anterior compartment of the forearm and 5 intrinsic muscles of hand

Ulnar nerve

(C7) terminal branch of medial cord. Descends on medial side of arm, forearm and hand. Supplies FCU and ulnar half of FDP and most intrinsic muscles of hand

Sciatic nerve

(L3-L4, S1-S3) largest nerve of the body, originated from the sacral plexus. Gives rise to tibial nerve and common fibular nerve which supply the muscle compartment of the leg

Limb proportions predicts locomotion

(divide fore limbs by hind limbs and x100) Vertical Clinging Leaping = 50-80 (A) Quadrupeds = 80-100 (B) Bipeds = 50-80 (C) Brachiation = 100-150 (D) Can use humerus and femur if skeleton is incomplete

Vestibular ligament

(false ligament) - attaches to the corniculate cartilage

Anatomy

(form) classification and description of the structures of the body (plants and animals)

Physiology

(function) study of function of the structures in the body

Craniates

(including vertebrates)chordates with a back boneform an endoskeleton, light can support bodyweight, can grow

Semispinalis m.

(most superficial): capitis, cervicis and thoracis muscles

Phase I: Early hominins

(strong sexual dimorphism in cranial capacity) A afarensis A africanus P robustus P boisei

Vocal ligament

(true ligament) attaches to arytenoid cartilage

hemisphere lobes

- Frontal lobe - Parietal lobe - Temporal lobe - Occipital lobe

Archaic Homo Phase III

0.6-0.13 mya In Africa: cranial capacity 1280cm3 Low vault Prominent brow-ridges Modern cranial base

Physiology of audition - 8 steps:

1 & 2. Curvatures of the auricle direct sound into the external auditory meatus 3. Sound waves hitting the tympanic membrane causes it to vibrate, converting sound waves into mechanical movements 4 & 5. The organisation of auditory ossicles means that the in-out movement of tympanic membrane produces rocking motion, acting as lever system on the oval window 5 & 6. Vibration of the oval window generates a wave in the lymphatic fluid which travels through the swirl 7. Waves bend the stereocilia which are detected by receptors of the Cochlear Nerve fibres 8. The Cochlear Nerve is a branch of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN 8; VIII) that sends the sensory information to the Primary Auditory Cortex (Temporal Lobe) to be interpreted as sound *Auditory association area puts sound into context such as sounds, speech or music

Asian Homo Erectus Phase II

1.8-0.1 mya In indonesia: long skull, flat forehead Cranial capacity 940cm3 Distinct brow ridges

follicle maturation prior to ovulation

10-12 hours before ovulation, meiosis resumes Up to 50 follicles start the maturation process each month and one will dominate. Dominant follicle is defined around 7 days prior to ovulation. Dominant follicle enlarges, becomes FSH-independent, and secretes high levels of inhibin. Inhibin suppresses pituitary FSH production causing the remaining semi-matured follicles to degenerate - atretic follicles

Cranial nerves

12 pairs, arise from the brain, travel through the cranial bones, primarily control special senses Numbered in Roman Numerals based on where they arise from 1; I = anterior, 12; XII = posterior Different from peripheral nerves/spinal nerves Different because some are sensory only, motor only or are mixed sensory and motor

Muscles of sole of foot compartments and innervation

18 muscles are rearranged into four layers with 1st most superficial and 4th the deepest They are innervated by the plantar nerves and their branches

Male urethra

18-20cm long, common passageway of urine and semen Prostatic urethra Membranous urethra Spongy urethra Internal urethral sphincter

Early African Homo phase I

2.4-2 mya low forehead Supraorbital torus Less prognathic face Smaller teeth Cranial capacity 910cm3 Angular vault Occipital torus

Oldowan stone tools

2.5 million years old, first industry

Paranthropus group

2.7-1.1 mya prominent brow ridge Cranial capacity 410cm3 Sagittal crest Large zygomatic arch Broad cheekbones

How many bones in human

206

The Neanderthal range

225-28 kya long, flat and low briancase Low receding forehead large arching brow ridges Projecting mid face Lack of chin Occipital bun Retromolar space Brain size 1500cm3

Ureters

25-30cm long fibromuscular tubes extend from renal pelvis, exit hilum of the kidney Paired Retroperitoneal Transports urine via peristaltic action of smooth muscle

Cones

3 types - detect red, green & blue Stimulation in various combinations provides the perception of colours Require light to function

Female urethra

3-5cm long and only transmits urine from bladder to vestibule, an external space immediately internal to the labia minora internal urethral sphincter - is present but not functional

Modern humans phase IV

300-195 kya cranial capacity 1450cm3 Low cranial vault Projecting occipital protuberance Prominent brow ridge

Oral Cavity:

32 permanent teeth, gingivae (gums), tongue, tonsils, salivary duct openings Component of the Digestive System, connected to the Upper Respiratory Tract Lined by oral mucosa - epithelium with serous glands Taste is enhanced with the assistance of saliva & the sense of smell Very poor sense of taste without smell

Development of the central nervous system occurs at what time in gestation?

3rd week

Bones of the neuorcranium

4 singular bones (Frontal, Ethmoidal Sphenoidal, Occipital) 2 bilateral pairs (Temporal, Parietal)

Australopithecus group

4.2-2 mya height of 1.1m Long upper limbs Short lower limbs Knee morphology indicates habitual bipedalism

Swyer syndrome (gonadal dysgenesis)

46 XY phenotypically female (external) streak ovaries (increased likelihood of cancer) no post-pubertal development of 2o sex characteristics (lack of hormone production) no germ cells (may become pregnant with donated egg/embryo)

Female germ cells (Oocytes)

5 weeks of gestational age an estimated 700-1300 germ cells Between weeks 16 and 20, peak of an estimated 6 × 106 cells per ovary At birth, estimated to be ∼0.5-1 × 106 cells

Ardipithecus group

7-4 mya cranial capacity 300-350 cm3 Ape-like dentition Long and robust upper limbs Ilium short and broad Long and curved fingers Highly divergent big toe Rigid and flat foot (Lucy)

External Ear: External auditory meatus / acoustic canal

A blind-ended opening (~2.5cm long, curving anteriorly) Outer ~1/2 is elastic cartilage (continuous with auricle), inner ~1/2 within the temporal bone Epidermal features in canal: hair cells & ceruminous glands (secrete cerumen, "ear wax") to trap foreign particles & prevent damage to delicate tympanic membrane

Neural crest cells

A population of cells derived from junction of neural plate and epidermis Undergo an EMT (epithelial to mesenchyme transition) —> Migrate away Contribute to a diverse array of cells: including including melanocytes, craniofacial cartilage and bone, smooth muscle, peripheral & enteric neurons

Flat fascicle organisation

A thin, flat muscle with parallel muscle fascicles Often have an aponeurosis (type of fascia) E,g, external oblique, latissimus dorsi

Bone marrow

A tissue composed with blood cells (red marrow) and adipose tissue (yellow marrow)

Effects of androgens in men

Acne Larynx enlarges (voice deepens) Body and facial hair Kidney mass Bone strength and RBC production Epiphysial fusion Hair line recedes Muscle bulk Enlargement of prostate, penis, scrotum and testes

theca cells

Additional cellular layers are formed (once it becomes 2-3 layers thick), which will ultimately form the theca interna and externa Theca cells produce androgens that are converted into estrogens (17b-estradiol) by the aromatase enzyme produced by the granulosa cells.

bony elevations of nasal conchae function

Air enters the nasal cavity then bony elevations of nasal conchae create turbulent air flow to increase time air spends in nasal cavity to be filtrated, becomes more warm, prevents humidity in air, before entering pharynx

Quadrate fascicle organisation

All sides are equal size, square shaped with tendinous intersections E.g. rectus abdominis, pronator quadratus

Fontanelles

Allow for passage through birth canal Permit postnatal growth Posterior fontanelle closes ~9mths Anterior fontanelle closes ~15-24mths Timing of closure is highly variable

facet orientation and movement of thoracic

Almost coronal Limited rotation

facet orientation and movement of lumbar

Almost sagittal Flexion/extension, lateral flexion

facet orientation and movement of C1 (atlas), C2 (axis) ie. Atlanto-axial joint

Almost transverse Rotation

Tooth evidence insights for Neanderthals

Analyses of the faunal remains and isotopic signatures of bones suggest that Neanderthals were active hunter-gatherers mostly feeding on animal proteins from large and medium-sized terrestrial herbivores, where plant foods were of minimal importance. Neanderthals had a wide eco-geographical range Dental calculus, coprolites (fossil faeces) and stone tools function evidence that neanderthals were consuming plant material Neanderthals had strong variation between locations, those in the same region had similar diets Shows that they were sophisticated, used plants as medicine (these plants had no nutritional value but did have medicinal properties)

term for region elbow

Anconeus

Muscles of arm posterior compartment

Anconeus Triceps brachii muscles

Allens rule

Animals in colder climates minimise surface area:volume with shorter extremities

term for front

Anterior

Lung borders:

Anterior Posterior (smooth) Inferior

Circle of Willis cerebrum blood supply:

Anterior cerebral artery Middle cerebral artery Posterior cerebral artery

Cranial cavities

Anterior cranial fossa Middle cranial fossa Posterior cranial fossa

How do you tell the posterior from the anterior heart

Anterior perspective of heart looks smoother, with posterior part more rough with vessels branching

Borders of Oral Cavity:

Anteriorly: labia & teeth Laterally: cheeks Superiorly: hard palate (cranial bones) & soft palate Inferiorly: tongue Posteriorly: oropharynx

Similarities of spermatogenesis and oogenesis:

As PGCs they have undergone a long journey to the gonad Once in the gonad, they are surrounded by: - support cells (Sertoli/granulosa) - hormone-producing cells (Leydig/theca) cells They undergo significant maturation during their development They are the only cell types in the body to undergo meiosis Production of haploid germ cells that will combine to form a new person Human ooctye is ~100,000 times the size of the sperm(some gametic animals are isogamic - eg algae - gametes are equal size, and there is no definitive male/female) The compact sperm nuclei carry few products into the egg (apart from their DNA) The oocyte supplies essential proteins and mRNAs for the first few days of development until the foetal genome switches on

General movement of larynx group muscles

As a general rule, the suprahyoid muscles and the stylopharyngeus elevate the larynx, whilst the infrahyoid muscles depress the larynx

FSH

As puberty approaches, continued follicular maturation requires follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), produced by the pituitary.

Coronary Sulci:

Atrioventricular (coronary) sulci Anterior interventricular sulcus Posterior inter ventricular sulcus

Ligaments

Attach one bone to another and support, strengthen and reinforce joints. Are flexible, but can with withstand tremendous force, especially when pulled end to end. Uncontrolled movements are more likely to break a bone rather than snap a ligament. Made of collagen fibres that are long, straight and unbranched; arranged into fibrous subunits wound together. Fibres run with the line of tension along the length of the ligament to restrict joint separation

Infrahyoid group

Attach to hyoid, thyroid cartilage (larynx) & sternum, clavicle Sternohyoid Sternothyroid Thyrohyoid

Suprahyoid group

Attach to the hyoid and either the mandible or temporal bone. If mandible fixed = elevate hyoid (swallowing) If hyoid fixed = depress mandible (mastication

External Ear:

Auricle / Pinna Elastic cartilage covered in skin, connected to the cranium via ligaments & skeletal muscles (no cartilage in lobule) Auricle/Pinna funnels sound into the external auditory meatus Intrinsic & extrinsic skeletal muscles - mostly vestigial

brachial plexus terminal branches

Axillary nerve Musculocutaneous nerve Radial nerve Median nerve Ulna nerve

Other human senses:

Balance (vestibular) Acceleration Temperature Pain (nociceptors) Kinaesthetic (mechanoreceptors/proprioceptors) Chronoception (time)

Fossa ovalis

Before birth the left and right atrium are joined to each other because we don't breath in placenta, there is a passage for blood during this time because blood isn't going through lungs, after birth it closes to form fossa ovalis

Strategies of reproductive success:

Behaviouralsocial structures (eg marriage, lion pride) seductory or dominance behaviors precopulatory and postcopulatory mate-guarding occurs in birds, lizards, insects and primates. Physicalexternal physical attributes as reproductive signals more/faster/"better" sperm removing the sperm of the competitioncopulatory plugs leaving body parts behind Morphologicalshape of the penis copulatory movement Sperm co-operationbundling etc. Sperm competitiondestruction of sperm from prior partners reduction of female mating instincts Prolonged copulation

term for two heads

Biceps (two heads)

Muscles of arm anterior compartment

Biceps brachii m. Brachialis m. Coracobrachialis m.

Muscles of posterior thigh compartment, consists of three muscles known as hamstrings

Biceps femoris m Semitendinosus m. Semimembranosus m.

Early hominin locomotion

Bipedal, shortened pelvis, differences from later hominins: smaller body and longer arms relative to legs, long fingers and toes, capable of considerable climbing

Modern Homo sapiens locomotion

Bipedal, shortened pelvis, larger body and legs, fingers and toes not as long

Bergmann's Rule

Body size within widely distributed taxonomic groups varies with climate, e.g. species in colder climates have larger body masses

Posterior Abdominal wall contains:

Bones Muscles Nerves Blood vessels e.g. vena cava, aorta Lymphatics Visceral organs e.g. kidneys and adrenal glands, urethras

Components of the human skeleton:

Bones Cartilage Joints Ligaments

Neurocranium

Bony case of the brain and the cranial meninges, sinuses, where drainage of blood takes place

Cochlea

Bony structure that curls onto itself around a central column of bone containing the cochlear duct. Borders formed by temporal bone Contains clear lymphatic fluid

Lung Structure

Both lungs are conical, with concave base resting on diaphragm and blunt apex near the clavicle Lungs are divided into lobes by fissures Left lung is longer and thinner due to lack of liver on that side and presence of heart

Arteries of upper limb

Brachial artery Radial artery Ulnar artery

term for arm (brachium)

Brachialis

Estrogenic (oestrogenic) target tissues:

Brain Maintenance of body temperature Aids against memory loss Heart/liver Regulates production of cholesterol Bone Preservation of bone density Breast Stimulates development at pubery Preparation of glands for lactation Uterus Stimulates maturation Preparation for foetal implantation Ovary Stimulates maturation Stimulates initiation of menstrual cycle

Developmental anatomy

Branch of biology that studies embryos and their development

Radiology

Branch of medical science that uses medical imaging to diagnose and treat disease

term for short

Brevis

Evolution of upright posture:

C-shaped curve in primates, thoracic and sacral curvatures. Must bend knees when standing to avoid falling forward Centre of gravity in modern humans is closer t the hips due to secondary curvatures Erector spine

Vertebral column and centre of gravity changes:

C-shaped curve —> Erector spine Thoracic and sacral curvatures known as primary curves appear during foetal development and form a c-shaped curve Lumbar and cervical curvatures also known as secondary curves develop during childhood in association with lifting head and assuming upright sitting

Atlas vertebrae

C1, articulates with occipital condyles of cranium, largest vertebral foramen

Axis vertebrae

C2, transverse ligament binds the dens to inner surface of the atlas for pivot of skull

brachial plexus roots

C5, C6, C7, C8, T1

Tomography / Sectional imaging

CT (computer tomography), MRI, presents high resolution 3D images. Made up of "voxels" pixels that have information of width and height as well as depth of certain thickness depending on machine

dry specimens

Cadaveric specimens Plastinated cadaveric

wet specimens

Cadavers Cadaveric pro-sections

Regions of the colon

Caecum - receives chyme from ileum Mostly intraperitoneal Appendix - contains lymph nodes

hand bones

Carpal bones Metacarpal bones (palm of hand) Phalanges (finger bones)

term for wrist

Carpi

Efferent ducts

Carry sperm to epididymis

Elastic cartilage

Cartilage with elastic fibres that make it resilient and flexible e.g. ears, throat

Larynx:

Cartilaginous structure that connects the pharynx to the trachea All cartilage is hyaline except for the epiglottis which is elastic

oocyte development before birth:

Cells from the ovary surround the oocyte to form the primordial follicle

Chordates three sub phylum

Cephalochordates Urochordates Craniates

telencephalon

Cerebrum formed from two cerebral hemispheres

vertebral column bones

Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae - has ribs/costal bones attached Lumbar vertebrae Sacrum - series of fused vertebral bones. Begins unfused, but throughout development they fuse Coccyx - used to be a tail

Human versus chimp genomes

Changes in gene regulation can account for massive brain growth in humans Human - chimp DNA "99% identical" - in protein-coding regions (2% of genome) Human-chimp total genome comparison: differ by 4% (mostly non-coding) Unique human feature likely to be due to changes in non-coding DNA (non coding RNAs, and gene regulatory regions)

Things that can go wrong in sex determination:

Chromosomal aberrations Gene-level mutations Hormones and receptors Affecting gonadal development AND development of secondary sexual characteristics AND physical development

Orbicularis oculi

Circular skeletal muscles that close eyelids

Pleural sacs

Closed sacs of mesothelium, containing only serous fluid, continuous at the hilum of each lung Pleural cavity inside the sac is normally a potential space Pathologically can be filled One sac around each lung, not continuous Can collapse one lung at a time

Epididymis

Coiled tube (4-5m) along side of testis, Sperm storage and maturation, acquire motility

Rete testis

Collect sperm from seminiferous tubules

Bronchial circulation

Component of the systemic circulation. It consists of tiny bronchial arteries and veins that supply the bronchi and bronchioles of the lung bronchial arteries larger bronchial veins

Internal anal sphincter

Composed of a ring smooth muscle, involuntary control

External anal sphincter

Composed of skeletal muscle, voluntary control

Orbit

Comprised of 7 cranial bones, bony cavities for eyes (R & L), contain muscle, lacrimal system & fat

Pulmonary circulation

Conducts blood from the heart to and from the gas exchange surfaces of the lungs

Comparative anatomy

Considers the anatomical organisations of different types of animals

Systematic anatomy

Considers the organisation of body into systems that work together to carry out complex functions

Anterior eye cavity

Contains fluid aqueous humor - derived from plasma Function: Supplies nutrients to avascular cornea & lens, maintains intraocular pressure & shape of anterior eye - continuously produced

Posterior eye cavity

Contains gelatinous mass called vitreous humor - formed during development & is not replaced Comprised of collagen fibers & proteoglycans Function: Stabilises the shape of eye which could otherwise be distorted by extraocular muscles pulling on it

cardiac muscle control

Contraction is regulated intrinsically by pacemaker cells but can be influenced by the ANS

Fibre types are classified according to factors including:

Contraction speed Cross-sectional diameter Fatigue resistance

Extrinsic muscles of the eye

Control the position of the eye 4 rectus (rectus = straight) 2 oblique Most innervated by the oculomotor nerve Except: superior oblique (trochlear nerve), lateral rectus (abducens nerve)

facet orientation and movement of Skull, C1 (atlas) ie. Atlanto-occipital joint

Convex (occipital), concave (atlas) Flexion / extension (prevents twisting)

term for ribs (costal bones)

Costalis

Skull bones

Cranial bones Mandible - lower jaw

Major compartments of the head

Cranial cavity 2 ears 2 orbits 2 nasal cavities 1 oral cavity 8 cranial bones house the brain 14 bones form the facial skeleton

Short bones

Cuboidal shaped, usually small and boxy

hair colour and pigmentation

Dark hair mainly consists of eumelanin in the hair follicles Blond / Red hair consists mostly of pheomelanin Grey hair, air bubbles left from dead melanocytes in medulla

term for triangular

Deltoid

New human species

Denisovans (200,000-50,000 ya) Homo floresiensis (100,000-60,000 ya) Homo luzonensis (67,000-50,000 ya)

Menisci

Disc like structures of fibrocartilage within a joint to aid in shock absorption

Testicular cancer

Disrupted development can lead to tumours in male germ-line, occurs during embryogenesis

knee bones

Distal femur Patella (knee joint) Proximal Tibia Proximal fibula

Mesoderm:

Dorsal = notochord Paraxial = bone marrow Intermediate = tubule cell of the kidney and gonads Lateral = red blood cells Head = facial muscles

Range of movements at the ankle joint:

Dorsiflexion (30 degrees) Plantar flexion (50 degrees) Inversion (35 degrees) Eversion (20 degrees)

Mutations in several genes: e.g, Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes

Due to loss of function of several imprinted genes on ch15q11-13; Paternal loss = Prader-Will ; maternal loss = Angelmans (Imprinted genes: those turned ON or OFF depending upon parent of origin)

Intraperitoneal organs

During development organs push through peritoneum as they develop, suspended in the peritoneal cavity and have mesenteries, are moveable

Vertebral column in older age

During middle and older age a shortening of the vertebral column occurs due to increased curvature Decrease in bone density (osteoporosis) Invertebral discs dehydrate and compress (loss of fluid), fibrocartilage becomes thinner, drier and more fragile Loss of muscle tone

Homunculus

Early theories of heredity (eg preformationism), stated that the gametes (egg OR sperm) contained a complete preformed individual, development was a matter of enlarging this into a fully formed being

Other animals have the additional senses:

Echolocation Electroreception Magnetoreception

Vagina

Elastic tube with SM in wall lined by stratified squamous epithelium Lies between urinary bladder (anterior) and rectum (posterior) Opens into the vestibule Projection of cervix into vagina creates an anterior and posterior fornix

Ectopic pregnancy

Embryo implants outside uterus Most (over 90%) are tubal Causes bleeding, tubal miscarriage

CT

Emissions of rotating x-ray beam with multiple detectors, continuous density data reconstructed into 'slices' of a given thickness (dependent on emitter, detector and reconstruction) Reconstructing 3D structures: Density (Hounsfield Unit) mediated threshold Bone semi-automated given density difference Soft tissue (and subdivisions) more challenging and can be assisted by contrast media (introducing a substance to system to make it show up greater in images)

Arboreal quadrupedalism

Equal limb lengths for gait efficiency Ending of elbows and knees Grasping hands and feet Long and mobile tail for arboreal stability

Male sex function (3Es):

Erection Emission Ejaculation (Orgasm)

Intermediate muscles of vertebral column:

Erector spinae Iliocostalis m. Longissimus m. Spinalis m.

Animal phylogeny

Evolutionary relationships, shared characteristics due to a common ancestor (evolutionary history)Based on morphological, developmental, molecular etc.

Mons pubis

Expanse of skin and subcutaneous tissue anterior to the pubic symphysis

Male sex function ejaculation

Expulsion of semen by the rhythmic contractions of the bulbospongiosus and ischiocavernosus muscles that wrap around the corpus spongiosum and corpus cavernosa, respectively

Latissimus dorsi m.

Extends the shoulder joint and medially rotates the humerus. In combination with the pectorals major is a powerful adductor

Range of motion of elbow joint:

Extension - flexion: 10 degrees to -150 degrees Supination - pronation: 90 degrees to -90 degrees

Range of movement in hip joint:

Extension / flexion Abduction / adduction Later and medial rotation

Knee joint range of motion:

Extension / flexion Lateral and medial rotation

Muscles of leg anterior compartment - formed by four muscles

Extensor digitorum longus m. Tibialis anterior m. Extensor hallucis longus m. Fibularis tertius m.

Muscles of dorsum of foot - consists of two muscles

Extensor hallucis brevis Extensor digitorium brevis

Oblique and rectus muscles:

External abdominal oblique m. oblique m. Transverse abdominis m. Rectus abdominis m.

Borders of nasal cavity:

External/anterior openings = Nares ("nostrils") Posterior openings = Choanae, lead to nasopharynx Medial wall (divide between R & L) = Nasal septum (hyaline cartilage & cranial bone) Lateral walls = comprised of hyaline cartilage & cranial bones Floor = Hard palate (cranial bones, same as oral cavity) Roof/apex = cranial bones, Olfactory Region

term for superficial

Externus

Development of lower limbs:

Extremities begin to develop in week 4. In week 5-6 the limbs display a spatial pattern formation in the primordial arms and legs. In contrast to the arm anlage, the primordial legs rotate laterally during week 8 resulting in the knew to be oriented in a craniolateral position. As a consequence of this rotation, the extensor muscles of the leg are in a ventral position, in contrast to the dorsal position of the extensor muscles in the arm.

term for outside of

Extrinsic

Information detected by gustatory receptors is sent by:

Facial Nerve (CN 7; VII) - Body of tongue (anterior 2/3) Glossopharyngeal Nerve (CN 9; IX) - Root of tongue (posterior 1/3) Information is processed by the Gustatory Cortex of the insula / Frontal lobe *Vagus Nerve (CN 10; X) involved in epiglottis reflex

Taste (Gustation) cranial nerve and nerve type

Facial Nerve (CN 7;VII) Mixed (afferent & efferent; input & output) Glossopharyngeal Nerve (CN 9; IX) Mixed (afferent & efferent; input & output) *Sensory fibres of these nerves responsible for gustation

types of bipedalism

Facultative bipedalism Habitual bipedalism Obligate bipedalism

Muscular (or distributing) arteries

Far from the heart (e.g. all arteries of the limbs), Contain relatively more smooth muscles and less elastin than elastic arteries Distribute and deliver blood to body parts

Uni/Bipennate fascicle organisation

Fascicles are at a diagonal direction to the tendon and therefore pull at an angle Contain more fibres than parallel muscle therefore greater force produced Fibres can be on the same side as a tendon, on both sides of the tendon or where the tendon branches within the muscle and fibres run in multiple directions E.g. Extrinsic muscles of the foot, rectus femoris

Multipennate fascicle organisation

Fascicles are at a diagonal direction to the tendon and therefore pull at an angle Contain more fibres than parallel muscle therefore greater force produced Fibres can be on the same side as a tendon, on both sides of the tendon or where the tendon branches within the muscle and fibres run in multiple directions E.g. deltoid, subscapularis

Parallel fascicle organisation

Fascicles are parallel to the long axis of the muscle Often have a muscle belly (body) When it contracts and shortens it gets larger in diameter E.g. sartorius, extraocular muscles of the eye

Circular fascicle organisation

Fascicles concentrically arranged around an opening When contracted the opening decreases in size Guards entrances/exits of the body (digestive/urinary/mouth) E.g. orbicularis oris, orbicularis occuli

Convergent fascicle organisation

Fascicles extend over broad area and converge at a common attachment Versatile muscle because stimulation of different portions can change the direction of pull E.g. pectoralis major, trapezius

Fast oxidative-glycolytic (fast-twitch, type 8 muscle fibres) skeletal muscle fibres

Fast to contract (0.01 seconds or less) Cross-sectional diameter is large (lots of myofibrils per muscle fibre) Low fatigue resistance Pale (er) in colour - Low myoglobin content (pigment) - Less vascularized than fast-twitch Low mitochondrial density Produce ATP via anaerobic glycolysis from carbohydrates (glucose)

Major nerves of lower extremity

Femoral nerve

term for femur

Femoris

thigh bones

Femur

Periosteum

Fibrous connective tissue sleeve covering bones

Muscles of leg lateral compartment - formed by two muscles

Fibularis longus Fibularis brevis

Lobe fined fishes

Fins: rod shaped bones, muscles Locomotion: swimming, walk under water Only a few species left: Coelacanths, lungfish Have lungs Gave rise to tetrapods

Orientation of the heart:

Fist-sized, conical organ Located left of the body midline; posterior to the sternum in the mediastinum The right side (right atrium and ventricle) is located more anteriorly The left side (left atrium and ventricle) is located more posteriorly

Trachea

Flexible, slightly rigid tube in mediastinum Runs from C6 to T4/T5, where it bifurcates into the primary bronchi Function: filter, warm, humidify air Contains 15-20 U-shaped hyaline cartilages & trachealis muscle (posterior) Cartilage rings don't close around trachea posteriorly so that trachea can change shape to facilitate swallowing of posterior oesophagus Annular ligaments connect cartilage rings Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

Range of motion of shoulder joint:

Flexion Extension Abduction Adduction Internal / medial rotation External / lateral rotation Elevation - depression: 40degrees to -10degrees Protraction - retraction: 25 degrees to -25 degrees

Prepuce

Fold of labia minora covering clitoris

oocyte development to puberty:

Follicle size increases due to increase in oocyte size, and number of follicular cells

Metencephalon

Form the following structures: Pons Cerebellum

Embalming fluid

Formaldehyde (preservative) Chlorophene (anti-bacterial, anti-fungal) Dye (more life-like appearance) Water

Diathrosis (Synovial joint)

Freely moveable joints covered with articular cartilage within a joint cavity that contains synovial fluid. Fluid is lined with synovial membrane and reinforced by a fibrous capsule and ligaments

Copulatory plugs / barriers:

Frequently observed in insects, reptiles, some mammals, and spiders - physically blocking the transfer of sperm. ALSO Drosophila and Bumblebee seminal fluid contains "anti-aphrodisiac" Drosophila seminal fluid contains pheromones and modified enzymes that destroy the sperm already in the female reproductive tract In some insects and spiders, the male copulatory organ breaks off or tears off at the end of copulation within the female Prolonged copulation "Last male precedence" effect

Facial bones:

Frontal Zygomatic Nasal Maxilla Mandible

Iris ("rainbow")

Function: Regulates the amount of light that enters eyes Thin diaphragm of tissue resting on lens Melanocytes contain pigment that gives colour − few melanocytes = blue colour − many melanocytes = brown colour Vascularised to supply pupillae muscles Opening in iris is the pupil ("little person")

Muscles of leg posterior compartment superficial

Gastrocnemius m Soleus m. Plantaris m.

Chromosomal disorders e.g. Down syndrome

Genes unaltered but a chromosome is duplicated or deleted e.g., Down syndrome due to trisomy 21 (a syndrome refers to several features) Incidence = 5 per 10,000 births features: mental retardation, particular set of facial features (small chin, rounded face) increased incidence of heart disorders, hearing loss Chromosome 21 has 226 known genes; the main genes responsible for Down Syndrome cluster at 21q21-23

Joint types

Gliding joints - articular joint surfaces are essentially flat only allowing gliding movements - Condylar joints - oval articular surface within a depression allowing all angular motions (in two planes) - Hinge joints - joint surfaces are arranged to allow only back and forth movements in a single plane - Saddle joints - each articular is concave along one axis and convex along the other allowing angular movement including circumduction but prevents rotation - Pivot joints - axis of a convex articular surface is parallel with the longitudinal axis of the bone, permits only rotation - Ball-and-socket joints - round end of one bone rests within a cup-shaped depression in another allowing movement in all directions

muscles in gluteal region

Gluteus maximus Gluteus medium and minimus Lateral rotators

Male germ cells morphological changes

Golgi forms the acrosome Mitochondria form and align to become body Nucleus compacts, dna is rearranged and histones replaced by transition proteins then protameans (specific to sperm) Cytoplasm is removed

term for slender

Gracilis

breast feeding age in different primates

Great apes breastfeed their babies for up to 5 years Humans usually breastfed till 2.5 years Orangutang's breast-feed till age 8 due to strong seasonal variation, fruit becomes too hard to eat at times of the year so mother compensates with milk

Coronary veins

Great cardiac vein Small cardiac vein Middle cardiac vein Coronary sinus

Phase III: Late homo

H heidelbergensis H neanderthalensis Early H sapiens Recent H sapiens

Gametes

Half the genetic information is carried in the gametes from each gender, so when combined, form the full genetic complement

term for big toe (hallex)

Hallicis

Fibrocartilage

Has little ground substance and its matrix is dominated by densely interwoven collagen fibres, making it extremely durable and tough. Found joining bones within a joint cavity e.g. meniscus of knee, pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs

Trigeminal nerve (V)

Has three major branches: ophthalmic nerve (V1) - sensory nerve. maxillary nerve (V2) - sensory nerve. mandibular nerve (V3) - sensory nerve and motor nerve (the muscles of mastication)

Regions of the body

Head and neck Trunk Thorax Abdomen Pelvis and perineum Back Upper limbs Lower limbs

What percentage of cardiac output does heart recieve

Heart receives approx 5% of cardiac output

Rods

Highly sensitive to light Enable us to see in dim light (twilight, moonlight) Do not distinguish colours

articulating bones, function and structure of hip (coxal) joint

Hip bone and femur, synovial ball and socket, diarthrotic

first fully obligate bipedalist

Homo Ergaster

Multi-regional hypothesis

Homo erectus evolved in Africa, then colonise the rest of the world. Since humans look similar, the theory suggests that interbreeding resulted in generic homo sapiens look

Neanderthal brain comparison with humans

Human skulls are also much rounder whereas neanderthals are longer and flatter By looking an baby Neanderthal cranium morphologies they found it is very similar to modern humans, major morphological difference occurs after birth when modern humans enter the globalisation phase

arm bones

Humerus

Seminiferous tubules

Hundreds of highly coiled tubes (over 2' long) packed into tunica albuginea. Site of spermatogenesis (1500/s/testicle)

Bronchioles

Hyaline cartilage is replaced by smooth muscle (keep them open) Lined by columnar cuboidal epithelium (facilitates gas diffusion) Terminal bronchioles branch into respiratory bronchioles Respiratory bronchioles branch into alveolar ducts & alveoli where gas exchange takes place

Permanent teeth:

I(incisor); C (canine); P (premolar); M (molar)

right dominant heart

If the posterior descending artery branches off the RCA

term for ilium

Ilio-

Muscles of anterior thigh compartment flexors of hip

Iliopsoas m., sartorius m.

DNA loss in human evolution

In some cases, unique human traits have evolved through DNA loss McLean et al. (2011) identified 510 genomic regions present in chimps & other but mammals but deleted in humans (almost all non-coding) e.g., Removal of an regulator of a growth suppressor, GADD45G Loss of GADD45G expression may be linked to increased brain growth in humans

Mammals types of teeth from front to back:

Incisors Canines Premolars Molars

term for groin

Inguinal

Quite - Diaphragmatic breathing (innervation):

Inhalation: Diaphragmatic contraction (diaphragm flattens) Expansion of the thoracic cavity (pushing the abdominal organs) (innervation phrenic n. (C3,4,5 keeps you alive!) Exhalation if passive. The diaphragm relaxes Elastic tissues of lungs contract to let air out

Sinoatrial (SA) node

Initiation of the heartbeat, located between superior vena cava and right atrium, is the pacemaker

Neural Tunic - Retina

Innermost tunic, avascular Contains Macula & Fovea Photoreceptors are not evenly distributed in the retina

skeletal muscle control

Innervated by motor neurons of spinal nerves, Voluntary contraction

Fast glycolytic (intermediate, type IIA muscle fibres) skeletal muscle fibres

Intermediate-fast to contract (0.01 - 0.03 seconds) Cross-sectional diameter is intermediate (more the 'slow', less than 'fast') Intermediate fatigue resistance Pink in colour - Intermediate myoglobin content (pigment) - Intermediate vascularization Intermediate mitochondrial density Produce ATP via anaerobic glycolysis or aerobic respiration

skeletal muscle activity

Intermittent contraction for moving bones, stabilising joints and other structures (contraction varies between location)

term for deep, internal

Internus

term for inside of

Intrinsic

action of compartments of intrinsic muscles of hand

Intrinsic muscles of the hand produce fine movement of digits

Mesencephalon (midbrain)

Is base of your brain Connecting the forebrain and the hindbrain. Formed from: - Colliculi - Tegmentum (inside) - Cerebral peduncles (outside) - hold the cerebral cortex

Cartilaginous joints

Joints firmly held together by a thin layer of hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage e.g. between vertebrae, epiphyseal plate, between first rib and sternum

Fibrous joints

Joints where the articular surface of the bones are attached to each other through fibrous connective tissues e.g. between fibula and tibia, suture line in skull

abnormal curvatures

Kyphosi Lordosis Scoliosis

Types of hair:

Lanugo hairs Vellus hairs Intermediate hairs Terminal hairs

Head

Large, round articular end of long bones. Smooth. Not every bone that has a head has a neck

plicae in jejunum (circular folds)

Large, tall plicae circulares (circular folds)

Where does vocalisation take place?

Larynx

brachial plexus cords

Lateral cord - formed from anterior divisions of superior and middle trunksPosterior cord - formed from posterior division of trunksMedial cord - formed from anterior division of inferior trunk

Tympanic membrane:

Lateral side = External ear, Medial side = Middle ear Lateral side covered in epidermis, medial side thin mucous membrane Tympanic membrane is a tough connective tissue center within a fibrocartilagenous ring attaching to temporal bone (ear drum)

term for lateral

Lateralis

term for widest

Latissimus

Spongy bone

Lattice of mineralised trabeculae tissue (little/no blood vessels) surrounding marrow and adipose tissue

Amphiarthrosis

Little movement. Stronger than a freely moving joint. Articulating bones are connected by collagen fibres or cartilage. E.g. giving birth, pelvis dilates

Hyoid bone

Located at the level of the 3rd cervical vertebra, Muscle attachment

Bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands

Located within the urogenital diaphragm on each side of the membranous urethra Short duct projects into the base of the penis and enters the spongy urethra Secretory product is a clear, viscous mucin that protects the urethra and serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse

Muscle names are determined by their:

Location Location of attachments Number of attachments Shape Relative size Direction/orientation of the muscle fibres Action

term for longest

Longissimus

term for long

Longus

plicae in ileum (circular folds)

Low, sparse-absent plicae (circular folds)

Gross anatomy

Macroscopic (or topographical) anatomy, considers relatively large structures and features visible to the naked eye. E.g. surface anatomy, regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, developmental anatomy

term for large

Magnus

term for larger

Major

Cartilage and bone that separates the nasal cavity:

Major Alar cartilage Septal cartilage

action of muscles of the arm anterior compartment

Major action is flexion of forearm at shoulder and elbow joints. Exception is biceps brachii m. Which is also a major supinate of forearm

action of Muscles of posterior thigh compartment

Major action is flexion of leg at knee joint. Semimembranosus and semitendinosus extend the thigh and medially rotates leg when knee is flexed. Biceps femoris m. Can also laterally rotate the leg when knee is flexed Extension at the hip joint, and flexion at the knee joint

action of Muscles of leg posterior compartment deep

Major action is to flex the toes and weakly plantar flex the ankle. Tibialis posterior m. Also inverts the foot

action of forearm anterior compartment

Major actions of muscles of anterior compartment of forearm is flexion and pronation. Except the FCU adducts and FCR abducts the hand at the wrist joint.

Action of testosterone in males before birth

Male external genitalia Male reproductive tract Descent of testes into scrotum

Synctium

Male germ cells do not complete cytokinesis during spermatogenesis, as cytoplasmic bridges maintain connections. Thus, male haploid cells are supplied with all the products of a complete diploid genome (X and Y chromosome)

Auditory ossicles:

Malleus, Incus, Stapes Malleus connects with tympanic membrane Stapes connects with oval window (membrane covered opening into the internal ear) Synovial joints between (capsule & ligaments) Audition - Middle Ear Skeletal muscles attach to ossicles to restrict excessive movement (loud sounds)

Male and female reproductive system similarities:

Many reproductive system structures in the pelvis; others located in a diamond-shaped area between the thighs called the perineum Circumscribed anteriorly by the pubic symphysis, laterally by the ischial tuberosities, and posteriorly by the coccyx Urogenital (anterior) triangle - Contains the urethral and vaginal orifices in females and the base of the penis and the scrotum in males

Hyaline cartilage

Matrix of closely packed collagen fibres. It supports tissue and organs, and is a model for bone development. Found in areas to reduce friction & permit movement e.g. joint (articular surfaces), costal cartilage, nose tip

term for largest

Maximus

Functions of respiratory system:

Mechanical function musculoskeletal elements - helps to expand capacity of the thoraxDuring respiration ribs elevate during inspirationSternum moves anteriorly and superiorly Filtration/conducting function nasal cavity to terminal bronchioles Vocalisation (larynx) Gas exchange respiratory bronchioles to alveoli

Hilum of kidney

Medial surface of kidney, where blood vessels and renal pelvis enter kidney, on TP plane of abdomen, access to renal sinus

term for medial/middle

Medialis/medius

Lung surfaces:

Mediastinal Diaphragmatic Costal

Melanosomes

Melanocytes project their dendrites into keratinocytes where they then transfer mature melanosomes. ellipsoidal organelles containing melanin After melanosomes have been transferred to keratinocytes they become aggregate and surrounded by a membrane in a melanosome complex The number of melanocytes in an individual is approximately the same for people of all skin colours

term for smaller

Minimus

term for smaller

Minor

Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)

Motor and sensory nerve (mixed) Motor: (stylopharyngeus muscle) Sensory: - Tonsils - Pharynx - Middle ear - taste; posterior 1/3 of the tongue

Facial nerve (VII)

Motor and sensory nerve (mixed) Motor: controls the muscles of facial expression

Vagus nerve (X)

Motor and sensory nerve, motor innervation of the organs from the neck to the abdomen e.g. heart rate and gastrointestinal peristalsis sensory information from the internal organs to the brain.

Accessory nerve (XI)

Motor nerve supplies the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles

Hypoglossal nerve (XII)

Motor nerve. Innervates the muscles of the tongue, changes position and shape

Extrinsic Muscles of the larynx

Move the larynx superiorly and inferiorly Consist of the suprahyoid and infrahyoid groups and the stylopharynegus m of the pharynx

Major muscles of mastication

Move the mandible at the temporomandibular joint. Innervated by the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve Temporalis (jaw closing) - anterior and posterior component Masseter (jaw closing) - superficial and deep component Medial pterygoid (jaw closing) - inside angle of jaw Lateral pterygoid (jaw opening)

Abducens nerve (VI)

Movement of the eye (lateral rectus muscle). Motor nerve

Digastric fascicle organisation

Muscle fascicles are fusiform with two different muscle bellies that are connected by a tendon "di" = two, "gastric" = belly E.g. omohyoid, occipitofrontalis

Fusiform fascicle organisation

Muscle fascicles are parallel but taper towards tendons Spindle shaped muscle with thick muscle belly that tapers thinner at tendons E.g. biceps brachii

Sphincter pupillae

Muscle fibres arranged circularly around pupil Innervated by parasympathetic nerve fiber Contraction reduces pupil diameter in bright light (to reduce light entry)

Dilator pupillae

Muscle fibres arranged radially around pupil Innervated by sympathetic nerve fiber Contraction increases pupil diameter in dim light/fright or slight mode (to increase light entry)

Muscles of Head & Neck

Muscles of facial expression Muscles of mastication Extrinsic muscles of the eye Muscles of the tongue Muscles of the pharynx / larynx

Extrinsic muscles

Muscles that cross one or more joints. Their tendons and muscle bellies are in different compartments to one another

Pharynx

Muscular tube (2 layers of skeletal muscle) Originates posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and extends inferiorly near the level of the bifurcation of the larynx and esophagus. Walls lined with mucosa and contains skeletal muscle that permits swallowing

Genital ridge in female embryo:

Müllerian ducts develop into Fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina, and the Wolffian ducts degenerate

Bones forming the nasal septum:

Nasal bone Frontal process of maxilla Lacrimal bone Superior, middle and inferior concha Parts of ethmoid bone Medial pterygoid plate of sphenoid bone Parts of the palatine bone

Rapid human brain development:

Neocortex of human brain maintains its foetal growth rate Human brain is highly plastic, constantly changing, re-modelling High levels of gene transcription Human brain growth out-strips that of other apes

Neural crest cells give rise to:

Neural crest cells give rise to craniofacial region ( cartilage and bone), odontoblasts (dentine of teeth), melanocytes (pigment cells), parts of the heart, branchial arch derivatives (throat), peripheral nervous system Cranial = Bone and cartilage of face/neck cranial nerves, bones of ear & jaw Cardiac = outflow tract of heart, neurons Trunk = sympathetic neurons adrenal medulla dorsal root ganglia (sensory) melanocytes of dermis Sacral = parasympathetic nerves (enteric ganglia) of gut

Do gametes migrate through gastrulation?

No

Synarthrosis

No movement. Bony edges are quite close together and may even interlock. These strong joints are located where movement between bones must be prevented. E.g. cranial bones. These bones were once separated, and they fuse during development.

Agamogenesis

Not all creatures are gametic, instead they undergo asexual reproduction

Intervertebral disks are composed of:

Nucleus pulposus Anulus fibrosus

Vascular Tunic - Choroid

Numerous blood vessels, lymphatics, *heavily pigmented & includes the smooth muscles of ciliary & iris *this is why the pupil appears black Blood vessels enter at same point as optic nerve (optic disc) Function: blood supply to retina, pupil/lens size/shape, regulates aqueous humor

term for diagonal

Oblique

facet orientation and movement of Cervical C2-C7

Oblique (45 degrees between transverse and coronal planes) Flexion/extension, lateral flexion, rotation

Muscles of facial expressions:

Occipitofrontalis Orbicularis Oculi Orbicularis Oris Buccunator

Smell (Olfactory) cranial nerve and nerve type

Olfactory Nerve (CN 1;I) Sensory only (afferent; input)

Intrinsic muscles

Only cross one joint, their tendons and muscle bellies are within one region of the body

Human chin

Only mammal species that has a chin is modern humans Mantal eminence = chin It seems that modern human chins are relevant for the resistance to loads during incision and mastication. It probably helped in maintaining the resistance to certain loads rather than improving resistance to feeding loads. Many different theories though

Hydatidiform mole

Only the trophoblast layer proliferates and not the inner cell mass no embryo develops The trophoblast cells will secrete human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), as in a normal pregnancy, and may appear maternally and by pregnancy test to be "normal". Prenatal diagnosis by ultrasound analysis demonstrates the absence of a embryo. symptoms: abnormal growth : vaginal bleeding 80% are benign and are removed

Hagfish and lampreys

Only vertebrates without jaws oldest extant vertebrate lineage No paired appendages Rudimentary vertebrae

oocyte development at birth:

Oocytes completely enclosed in follicular (granulosa) cells

Sight (Vision) cranial nerve and nerve type

Optic Nerve (CN 2;II) Sensory only (afferent; input)

Locomotion in great apes

Orangutangs : are arboreal specialists showing a mosaic of locomotory habits, including brachiation, vertical climbing and arboreal quadrupedalism Gorillas : move mainly quadrupedally through knuckle-walking. Occasionally they walk upright on two legs. They can climb on tree but they are unable to move by suspensory behaviour Bonobos and chimpanzees : both terrestrial and arboreal. On the ground they mainly move through knuckle-walking, but they can also move bipedally for short periods. In the arboreal environment they can move efficiently by climbing, clinging and swinging

Semicircular ducts

Organs of balance Sensory information provided by Vestibular Nerve

Oxygen levels in teeth

Oxygen levels in teeth also shows time of birth due to climate change and environmental conditions e.g. stress during winter shown in teeth

Pathway of blood

Oxygen poor blood from body enters vena cava (superior/inferior) —> enters right atrium —> when right atrium is relaxed the blood flows into right ventricle —> right atrium contracts pushing blood into ventricle —> right ventricle contracts to push blood in to pulmonary trunk causing the right atrioventricular valve to close —> blood flows to lungs —> oxygenated blood re-enters heart through pulmonary veins—> flows out into body via aorta

Corpus cavernosum (also in clitoris)

Paired masses on the anterior surface of the flaccid penis

Ovaries

Paired sex organs; site of oocyte development, Anchored to body wall via broad ligament (sheet of peritoneum) Important: oestrogen synthesis

Labia minora

Paired, highly vascular folds with sebaceous glands and melanocytes

Labia majora

Paired, thickened folds of skin, sebaceous glands, connective tissue

Seminal vesicles

Paired; Posterior surface of bladder Joins with d. deferens to form ejaculatory duct Secrete a viscous fluid of fructose (sugar) and prostaglandins Sugars nourish sperms in the reproductive tract Prostaglandins dilate the cervix

Hand positions:

Palmigrade hand Digitigrade hand Knuckle-walking hand Suspensory grasp

Male sex function erection

Parasympathetic nerve fibres reach the penis via pelvic splanchnic nerves. Dilate arteries in the penis and enable the erectile tissues to fill with blood

Abdominal oesophagus

Part of oesophagus in the abdominal cavity through diaphragm 1/2 inch long Inner circular, outer longitudinal muscle Upper 1/3 of oesophagus is striated muscle, remainder is smooth muscle Abdominal oesophagus is under involuntary control Related to the left lobe of liver Vagus nerves on front and back Innervated by vagus and sympathetics (T1-T5) Blood supply: branches left gastric artery, veins drain into left gastric Functions: transport of food and liquid to stomach from pharynx

Uterus

Pear-shaped, muscular organ Fundus is the body of the uterus Cervix is the inferior neck of the uterus projecting into the vagina Cervical os: Opening to vagina

term for comb-like

Pectinate

term for chest (pectoral)

Pectoralis

hip / pelvic girdle bones

Pelvis Proximal femur

Perimetrium

Peritoneum and underlying connective tissue

frontal lobe

Personality, behaviour, emotions Speech: speaking and writing (Broca's area) Primary motor cortex - last gyrus in lobe

term for pear-shaped

Piriformis

Jejunum and ileum intestinal surface area for absorption:

Plicae Villi Microvilli

term for thumb (pollex)

Pollicis

Circle of Willis pons blood supply

Pontine aa from the basilar a

term for posterior knee

Popliteus

Muscles of leg posterior compartment deep

Popliteus m. Flexor hallucis longus m. Flexor digitorum m. Tibialis posterior m.

term for back

Posterior

left dominant heart

Posterior descending (or interventricular) artery arises from RCA in ~85% of population; from LCX ~15% If the posterior descending artery branches off the LCX

Vestibule

Potential space between labia minora. Urethral opening and vaginal orifice. Bulbs of the vestibule and greater vestibular glands

Primary skeletal muscle functions

Produce movement of the skeleton Maintain posture and body position Support soft tissues Guard entrances and exits Maintain body temperature Store nutrient reserves (metabolic tissue)

Lacrimal apparatus

Production, movement & drainage of fluid from eye surface (tears)

term for deep

Profundus

Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes

Project from uterus with infundibulum at distal end Fimbrae are finger-like projections from infundibulum

Functions of GI tube:

Propulsion (all parts) Peristalsis (all parts) Trituration - crushing and grinding in the stomach Absorption - in small intestines Reservoir - in stomach and colon Defecation - in rectum and anus

notochord chordate character

Provides body with skeletal support structure Stiff but flexible rod that runs from anterior to posterior

Filtration/conduction in the upper respiratory tract

Pseudo stratified columnar - goblet cells - mucin - mucus glands - lysozyme (fights bacteria)

term for loin

Psoas

Systemic circuit

Pumps blood from the left side of the heart, through systemic vessels in peripheral tissues, and back to the right side of the heart

Pulmonary circuit

Pumps blood from the right side of the heart through pulmonary vessels, to the lungs, and back to the left side of the heart

term for four heads

Quadriceps

term for radius

Radialis

forearm bones

Radius (thumb side) Ulna (pinky side)

HARs: Human Accelerated Regions

Rapidly evolving DNA regulatory elements, often located near brain-expressed genes e.g., HARE5, regulates Frizzled8, a receptor involved in neuron growth Transgenic mice expressing human HARE5 accelerated neuronal cell cycle Increased cortex size and cell proliferation in mice expressing human HARE5 (mouse embryos carrying human HARE5 DNA have brains 12% larger)

Actinopterygii

Ray finned fishes fins supported by dermal rays Muscles do not extend into fins Dominant class of vertebrates (27,000 species) Habitats: marine and fresh water

Right atrium

Receives deoxygenated blood from systemic circulation via 3 blood vessels (Coronary sinus; Superior vena cava; Inferior vena cava) Conveys blood into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve (3 cusps) contains the SA and AV nodes (parts of the heart conduction system

Left atrium

Receives oxygenated blood from pulmonary circulation via four pulmonary veins Separated from the left ventricle by bicuspid valve (2 cusps) relevant internal features: - Valve of foramen ovale - Auricle contains musculi pectinati

term for straight, parallel

Rectus

Muscles of anterior thigh compartment extensors of knee

Rectus femoris m., vastus medialis m., vastus intermedius m., vastus lateralis m.

Male sex function emission

Refers to the movement of secretions of the glands (seminal vesicles, prostate and bulbourethral), along with spermatozoa, into the prostatic urethra

Pulmonary cavities

Regions on either side of mediastinum (potential cavities only)

Neck

Relatively narrow portion proximal to the head. Slimmer portion connected to head. Things attach to necks

Ureter blood supply branches:

Renal Testicular / ovarian Common iliac Internal iliac

term for rhomboidal

Rhomboid

thoracic cage bones

Ribs - costal bones Sternum - anterior

Heart valves

Right atrioventricular valve Aortic semilunar valve Left atrioventricular valve Pulmonary semilunar valve

The first arteries that branch of the ascending aorta are:

Right coronary artery (RCA) Left coronary artery (LCA)

Photoreceptors

Rods Cones

Taste

Role in selection of food/drink, operates in conjunction with smell Flavour (different to taste( = thermoreception & mechanoreception to determine density & texture

brachial plexus trunks

Roots merge to from these three trunks in the inferior portion of neck, named by their location: Superior trunk = C5, C6 rootsMiddle trunk = C7 rootInferior trunk = C8, T1 roots

Intervertebral muscles:

Rotator thoracis m. Intrasversarii m. Multifidi m.

Condyle

Rounded, knuckle-like prominence at the end of a bone, often OCCURRING IN PAIRS, articular area.

Fibrous (tough) pericardium

Sac of fibrous connective tissue that envelopes the heart. Attaches to great vessels and diaphragm. Prevents heart from over contracting and provides protection and insulation

shoulder / pectoral girdle bones

Scapula (shoulder blade) Clavicle (collarbone) Head of humerus (peroximal part of humerus)

term for scapula

Scapularis

liver function

Secretion: secretes plasma proteins and bile Hematological regulation: largest blood reservoir (25% of cardiac output) Metabolic regulation: blood from the GI tract enters the liver via the hepatic portal system. Liver cells extract nutrients or toxins from the blood before it reaches systematic circulation. Liver cells monitor and adjust the levels of metabolites

Internal Ear:

Semicircular canals & Cochlea The oval window connects to a series of cavities (within the temporal bone; bony labyrinth) containing membranous ducts & sacs (membranous labyrinth)

parietal lobe

Sense of touch, pain, temperature Primary sensory cortex - first gyrus in lobe

Cochlear duct:

Sensory epithelium containing hair cells/ stereocilia Contains clear lymphatic fluid Organ of hearing Sensory information provided by branching fibres (throughout the cochlear swirl) of the Cochlear Nerve

Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)

Sensory nerve. It consists of: Cochlear nerve -carrying information about hearing Vestibular nerve - carrying information about balance

term for serrated

Serratus

Sesamoid bones

Sesame seed shaped, small and flat, they develop within a tendon usually near a joint. Protect tendons from excessive wear and can change the angle of the tendon e.g. patella

Diaphsis

Shaft of a long bone. Mass of the bone. The medullary cavity is here with bone marrow.

Forces that cause directional pressure on bones:

Shear Torsion Tension Compression

Analogous structures

Similarity of function between unrelated species that do not share a common ancestral origin. Features with similar function can evolve independently of each other

Endometrium

Simple columnar epithelium with underlying connective tissue

Corpus spongiosum

Single mass surrounding urethra, posterior side of flaccid penis. The expanded distal end is the glans, with the external urethral orifice

optic disc:

Site where Optic Nerve (CN 2; II) attaches to the eye Blind spot - contains no photoreceptors entry point of optic nerve and vessels

Extra-ocular muscles

Skeletal muscles within the orbital cavity - move eye right, left, up, down, rotate and opens eyelid (covered in Head & Neck week)

Clitoris

Small erectile body anterior to l. minora

Types of muscle:

Smooth Cardiac Skeletal Main function of all muscles is movement

Compact bone (cortical bone)

Solid, dense mass of heavily vascularised calcified tissue. Acts as an attachment site for muscles. Heavy and break more easily. Contains parallel osteons

Primordial germ cell journey (human):

Specification Commitment Migration - During the fourth week of human gestation, PGCs migrate from the yolk sac and into the developing embryo. Extensive proliferation occurs during the journey Colonisation - PCGs enter the gonads at approximately Week 6-8 of gestationFemale GC - PGCs differentiate into oogonia, and arrest in prophase I of meiosis at Week 12Male GC - PGCs form gonocytes. At birth, these become followed by intermediate spermatogonia and prespermatogonia

Primordial germ cell stages (mouse):

Specification - around 6 cells in mouse embryo express the Blimp1 gene (E5.5-6.5) Commitment - after proliferation, a subset of the Blimp1 positive cells express Stella, and commit to the germline Migration - undergo both passive and active migration to the gonads. Extensive proliferation occurs during this migration Colonisation - PGCs colonise gonad and under sex determinationOogonia enter meiosis, but arrest at prophase I of meiosis I until pubertyGonocytes undergo mitosis-arrest and don't enter meiosis until puberty

Tongue Functions:

Speech, eating/drinking & swallowing, detects taste Intrinsic skeletal muscle fibres arranged longitudinal, vertical & transversely to permit movement Body of tongue covered in 4 types of papillae 3 of the 4 papillae contain 'taste buds' called gustatory receptors

Diameter of pupil is adjusted by two smooth muscles within the iris

Sphincter pupillae Dilator pupillae

Superficial intrinsic muscles of vertebral column:

Splenius muscles

epidermal ridges

Stratum basale of the epidermis forms epidermal ridges that extend into the dermis. Ridges on the palms and soles increase friction ensuring a secure grip. In knuckle walkers epidermal ridges are present on knuckles, in primates using their tail they are present on the tail

cardiac muscle activity

Strong, quick, continuous rhythmic contraction

Homologous structures

Structures that are similar in their fundamental construction, although they may serve different purposes, have a common ancestor

Microscopic anatomy

Study of structures that are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Eg. Cytology and histology.

Pharynx elevator muscles:

Stylopharyngeus Salpingopharyngeus Palatopharyngeus

Veins of the upper limb superficial:

Superficial venous system of arm Cephalic vein Basilic vein

term for superficial

Superficialis

Circle of Willis cerebellum blood supply:

Superior cerebellar artery Anterior inferior cerebellar a. Posterior inferior cerebellar a.

Superior pharyngeal constrictor

Superior pharyngeal constrictor - found in the oropharynx,

Olfactory Region

Superior to the superior conchae & nasal cavity roof (apex) Olfactory bulbs are within the cranial cavity Olfactory nerve fibres pass through tiny holes in the cranial bones Olfactory nerve fibres & receptors pass between the cells of the olfactory (respiratory) epithelium The Olfactory Nerve Fibres travel from the nasal cavity through cranial bones into the cranial cavity to form the Olfactory Bulbs The Olfactory Bulbs become the Olfactory Nerve Tracts (also known as Cranial Nerve 1; CN I) Olfactory Nerves are actually 'brain tracts', extensions of the brain that have meninges Olfactory information is sent via the Olfactory Nerve Tracts (CN 1; I) to the Olfactory Cortex of the Temporal Lobe

Functions of the human skeleton:

Support Protection of soft organs Movement Blood cell production Storage of nutrients

Surface anatomy

Surface landmarks which correspond to deeper structures hidden from view

The membranous labyrinth:

Suspended within the fluid is the membranous labyrinth = semicircular canals & cochlear duct

All gustatory receptors detect all tastes:

Sweet, salty, sour, bitter & umami Spicy is not a taste - it is detected by pain receptors in the oral cavity (different cranial nerves) EXCEPTION: *There are some gustatory receptor-like structures on the epiglottis but they do not detect taste. Rather, they are a component of a reflex.

foot bones

Tarsal bones Metatarsal bones Phalanges (toes)

Muscles of mastication:

Temporalis muscle - In modern humans attaches to temporal line, in gorillas attaches to sagittal crest Masseter muscle - attachment to zygomatic arch

Formation of trabeculae

Tension and compressive forces have driven the formation of trabeculae along lines pressure

isometric contraction

Tension is produced in the muscle but there is no change in muscle length (no movement). It is a static contraction because the joint will stay in the same position

term for long and round

Teres

Locomotion

Terrestrial quadrupedalism Vertical clinging and leaping Brachiation Bipedalism

Action of testosterone in males after birth

Testosterone secretion ceases Testes and remainder of reproductive system remain small and nonfunctional until puberty

Action of testosterone in males at puberty

Testosterone secretion surges Testes enlarge and spermatogenesis begins Penis and scrotum enlarge Accessory secretory glands enlarge, and begin secreting Development of pubic hair, facial hair, vocal cords lengthen

Y chromosome

The Y Chromosome carries the SRY gene - the "master regulator" of testis development SRY switches on a cascade of genes responsible for male gonadal development

Biological adaption

The ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment. Adaptations can be structural or behavioural

diencephalon

The grey matter of the Diencephalon is formed from the thalamus (left and right inter thalamic adhesion surrounded by third ventricle), hypothalamus, epithalamus, subthalamus Parts of the limbic system: (emotional) system

Coronary circulation

The heart has 3 major sulci (grooves) that separate the four chambers, and major coronary blood vessels occupy these sulci

Visceral pleura

The layer of coelomic epithelium that adheres to the tissue of the lungs Insensitive to pain

Parietal pleura

The layer that lines the walls of the thoracic cage Sensitive to pain Innervated by somatic nerves Separated from the intercostal muscles by the endothoracic fascia

Metaphysis

The region of a long bone between the epiphysis and diaphysis, corresponding to the location of the epiphyseal cartilage of the developing bone. Usually where the growth plates exist

The gluteal muscles human vs gorilla

The widening and shortening of the gluteal plane on the ilium brings the seller gluteal muscles, the gluteus medium and gluteus minibus, to the side of the human pelvis where they act as abductors

Compartments of intrinsic muscles of hand:

Thenar Adductor Hypothenar Central Interosseous

innervation of compartments of intrinsic muscles of hand

Thenar muscles and first two lumbricals are innervated by the median nerve, all other muscles are supplied by the ulnar nerve. Except the FPB where the superficial head is innervated by the median nerve and deep head is innervates by ulnar nerve.

innervation of Muscles of medial thigh compartment

These are mainly innervated by the obturator nerve

innervation of muscles of the arm anterior compartment

These muscles are all innervated by musculocutaneous nerve.

innervation of muscles of anterior thigh compartment

These muscles are all innervated by the femoral nerve, exception of the psoas major m. Which is supplied by the anterior rami of lumbar nerve L1-3

innervation of Muscles of leg posterior compartment deep

These muscles are all innervated by the tibial nerve

innervation of arm posterior compartment

These muscles are innervated by radial nerve

innervation of muscles of leg anterior compartment

These muscles are innervated by the deep fibular nerve. The major function is dorsiflexion at the ankle joint. The tibialis anterior m. Also inverts the foot

innervation of muscles of leg lateral compartment

These muscles are innervated by the superficial fibular nerve and their major action is eversion of the foot

innervation of Muscles of leg posterior compartment superficial

These muscles are innervated by the tibial nerve

innervation of forearm anterior compartment

These muscles are mostly innervated by the median nerve. Except the ulnar half of the FDP (digits 4 and 5) and the FCU are supplied by the ulna nerve.

innervation of muscles of dorsum of foot

They are both innervated by the deep fibular nerve

action of posterior compartment of forearm

They are mostly involved with extension and supination of the forearm. ECRL, ECRB and APL muscles abduct the hand at the wrist joint, while ECU adducts the hand at the same joint. Only exception is the brachioradialis muscle which despite being in posterior compartment, it helps flex forearm.

Long bone anatomy

They contain the largest medullary cavities They are the major site of red bone marrow Highly vascularised (blood supply) They are a site of growth; contain epiphyseal plates

Myometrium

Thick layer of smooth muscle (high regenerative/proliferative capacity!)

Flat bones

Thin and parallel surfaces, usually provide protection

Line/Ridge

Thin linear elevation, often with a rough surface

leg bones

Tibia Fibula

term for tibia

Tibialis

Swallowing:

Tongue pushes food particles through the oropharyngeal isthmus. Voluntary. Pharyngeal muscles squeeze food through oro-and laryngopharynx; soft palate elevated; hyoid elevated. Involuntary, rapid. inferior constrictor squeezes food into oesophagus

Spinal nerves

Total of 31 pairs: Cervical nerves = 8 pairs (extra 1 before C1) Thoracic nerves = 12 pairs Lumbar nerves = 5 pairs Sacral nerves = 5 pairs Coccygeal nerves = 1 pair

Vestigial structures

Traits that have lost (or reduced) their function Shoulder dislocation - We inherit a versatile shoulder joint because our ancestors climbed trees

Male urethra

Transports semen from ejaculatory duct Prostatic urethra Membranous urethra Spongy urethra

cardiac muscle appearance

Transverse striations of fibres with intercalated discs (join fibres together at different angles)

skeletal muscle appearance

Transverse striations of fibres, myotubes organised in parallel

Deep muscles of vertebral column:

Transversospinalis Semispinalis Multifidi m. Rotatores m

term for trapezoid

Trapezius

term for three heads

Triceps

Long bones

Tubular shaped, relatively long and slender

The Circle of Willis receives blood from:

Two vertebral arteries (right and left). Two internal carotid arteries (right and left).

Middle Ear:

Tympanic cavity Air-filled & mucous membrane-lined, connected to nasopharynx via pharyngotympanic / eustachion tube Contains oval window

Regional anatomy

Type of anatomy that focuses on organisation of specific areas of the body. This approach emphasises the spatial relationships among structures

skeletal muscle location

Typically attaches to bones via tendons, but not exclusively Bone to bone: Axial and Appendicular Bone to organ:Eyes - muscles that control movement of the eyes/eyelids Skin - superficial muscles of the head and neck (facial expressions)

smooth muscle locations

Typically found in the walls of hollow organs (viscera), but not exclusively Blood vessels - vasodilation/vasoconstriction Eyes - muscles in iris that dilate or constrict pupil Skin - arrector muscles of hair follicles Gastrointestinal - stomach and intestines, peristalsis Respiratory - bronchodilation/bronchoconstriction

term for ulna

Ulnaris

Upper incisors

Upper crowns show a more distinct shovel shape, they are longer than broad, and are markedly asymmetrical. Their roots are stout and rounded triangular in section.

4 types of papillae:

Vallate/circumvallate Foliate Fungiform Filiform

term for great

Vastus

Liver blood supply:

Venous and arterial Portal vein contributes 75% of the blood volume of the liver (rich in nutrients, poor in oxygen) Hepatic artery contributes 25% of blood volume entering the liver (rich in oxygen, poor in nutrients) Blood from the portal veins and the hepatic artery miix as it enters and passes through a liver lobule Then the blood is collected by the hepatic central vein. The hepatic vein carries 100% of the blood of the liver into the inferior vena cava

Anatomical changes from bipedalism happened in the areas:

Vertebral column Skull Pelvis Lower limb Foot Limb proportions

Vertebral column bones and function

Vertebral column - 33 vertebrae arranged in 5 regions: cervical (C1-7), thoracic (T1-12), lumbar (L1-5, S1), sacral (S2, S5) and coccygeal (Co1-4) protects spinal cord and spinal nerves Supports body weight Provides a partly rigid and flexible axis for the body and a pivot point for head Plays an important role in posture and locomotion

Fovea:

Very densest concentration of cones Directly in line of sight (visual axis) Site of sharpest vision Optic

Fast very vigorous breathing

Very rigorous Inspiration Sternocleidomastoid (XI, Accessory nerve C3, C4) & scalenes muscles (innervation cervival spinal cord) elevate thorax Very rigorous Exhalation Internal intercostal muscles and transversus thoracis depress the ribs Abdomical muscles compress abdominal contents & reduce the volume of the thoracic cavity

Superior (vestibular) ligaments;

Vestibular folds: false vocal cords

The bony labyrinth:

Vestibule, three semicircular canals & cochlea Lined with periosteum & clear fluid

Hearing (Audition) cranial nerve and nerve type

Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN 8;VIII) Sensory only (afferent; input)

Fast vigorous breathing

Vigorous Inspiration (during exercise) Scalenes muscles stabilize first ribs External intercostal muscles contract & expand the thoracic cavity-(innervation intercostal nn.) Vigorous Exhalation Internal intercostal muscles depress the ribs

Course of sensory information from the eyes

Visual information from photoreceptors in the retina of each eye travel into each Optic Nerve (CN II) & converge at the Optic Chiasm Optic Chiasm is a specialised structure where optic nerve fibers from the nasal side of retina cross over (decussation) to the other side whereas those from the temporal side of retina do not Posterior to the Optic Chiasm, the Optic Nerves become the Optic Tracts that contain the mix of crossed & uncrossed (right & left eye information) optic nerve fibers Optic Tracts take the visual information to the Visual Cortex (Occipital Lobe) Optic nerve fibers from the nasal side cross over to the opposite side because the R & L visual fields cross over Therefore, information from visual fields that do not overlap can be processed by each visual cortex (R & L) - this processed information is then shared between the two sides & interpreted as a whole field of view

Inferior (vocal) ligaments

Vocal folds: true vocal cords

Vocalisation pitch depends on...

Vocalisation pitch depends on movement and dimension of the vocal folds

Volume of voice depends on...

Volume of voice depends on amount of air being used

Pharyngotympanic tube:

Walls contain elastic cartilage Tube normally closed - opens to equilibrate pressure in cavity with outside

Prostate gland

Walnut-shaped gland inferior to bladder Secretes citric acid (nourishment), seminal plasmin (antibiotic that combats UTIs), and PSA (prostate specific antigen) that liquefies semen after ejaculation Prostate cancer (PCa): In 2010, almost 20,000 Australian males were diagnosed with PCa, and 3,300 died from PCa PSA test - uses prostate specific antigen, if PSA is detected in blood there may be a prostate tumour

smooth muscle activity

Weak, slow, rhythmic contractions or sustained contractions

Barium element in teeth

What you eat is recorded in your body. Barium element increases during breastfeeding and level drops when the baby stops being breastfed. Shows how long a baby has breastfed for.

Joints (articulations)

Where two or more adjacent bones interact. Are classified based on function (degree of movement permitted) or structure. More movement = less stable

Genital ridge in male embryo:

Wolffian ducts develop into the vas deferens, prostate, and seminal vesicles, and the Müllerian ducts degenerate (anti-Müllerian hormone - AMH)

Single gene disorder: e.g, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

X-linked recessive ; mostly affecting males (1: 36,000 boys) Results in muscle degeneration, difficulty walking ,breathing, death Caused by mutation of dystrophin gene, encodes key structural component of muscle tissue Dystrophin connects cytoskeleton of muscle fibre cell to surrounding ECM DMD: loss of function in dystrophin 79 exon gene: Prenatal tests can tell whether their unborn child has the most common mutations. (only works if mutation known in family

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome

XY, phenotypic/psychosocially female, internal testes Normal to high testosterone circulates, but cannot bind to cytoplasmic receptors hence 'insensitive' to testosterone during development

Pregnancy test

a biochemical test to determine if a woman is pregnant Modern tests rely upon the hormone, human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) secreted by placenta after embryo implantation and detectable in maternal blood and urine hGC cannot be detected until after implantation (day 7-8) Home pregnancies test kits, when used by experienced technicians: 98% accurate,when used by consumers : around 75% accurate

aponeurosis

a broad tendinous sheet joining one muscle with another or for muscles that require a large attachment area with bone

Melanin

a dark pigment produced by the melanocytes of the epidermis. It is the most important component of skin colour

fascia

a fibrous membrane covering, supporting and separating muscles

Lateral rotators of hip joint

a group of 6 muscles that originate at the pelvis and insert at upper region of the femur. All cause a lateral rotation of the thigh and serve as stabilisers of the hip joint

Angle class 2 malocclusion

a malocclusion where the buccal groove of the first lower molar is distally positioned in occlusion with the mesiobuccal cusp of the first maxillary molar

Angle class 3 malocclusion

a malocclusion where the buccal groove of the first lower molar is medially positioned in occlusion with the mesiobuccal cusp of the first maxillary molar

Lower esophageal sphincter (LES)

a physiological sphincter not an anatomical one LES is tonically contracted and esophagus relaxed until peristalsis initiated Failure to open = achalasia

Pheomelanin

a type of melanin (yellow to red-brown) found in high concentration among red-haired people

Serratus anterior m.

abducts scapula and rotates it upwards, elevates ribs and scapula is stabilised

Congenital disorders

abnormalities of development The first trimester is the most sensitive period two types of abnormalities: 1. Genetic (inherited or de novo (from new) 2. environmental (effects of teratogens - toxins)

Nasopharynx

above soft palate, posterior to choanae

where does the sphenoid sinus drain into?

above superior choncha

Superior mediastinum location

above the sternal angle

smooth muscle appearance

absence of striations

Ileum

absorption of B12, salts and all product of digestion that were not absorbed by jejunum ~3m Intraperitoneal suspended by the mesentery proper

Short term physiological change

acclimatisation - temporary physiological response

The indeterminate genital ridge (bipotential reproductive system)

accompanied by a twin set of ducts and tubes: Müllerian ducts (ultimately female) Wolffian ducts (ultimately male)

articulating bones and structure and function type of acromioclavicular joint

acromion of scapula and clavicle, synovial plane, diarthrotic

Adductor intrinsic compartment of hand muscles

adductor pollicis m.

The folate hypothesis

adequate folate (folic acid) status is vital for the synthesis, repair and expression of DNA. Folate undergoes photolysis (decomposition of molecules by the action of light) when exposed to UV radiations. Folate deficiency can cause significant developmental disorders and degenerative diseases associated with high morbidity and mortality. It was suggested that the primary evolutionary function of melanin in regions receiving high UV radiations is to protect folate from photo degradation Folate deficiency can cause spina bifida

articulating bones and structure and function type of intercarpal joint

adjacent carpals, synovial plane, diarthrotic

articulating bones, function and structure of interphalangeal (toe) joint

adjacent phalangeals, synovial hinge, diarthrotic

articulating bones and structure and function type of interphalangeal joint

adjacent phalanges, synovial hinge, diarthrotic

articulating bones, function and structure of intertarsal joint

adjacent tarsals, synovial plane, diarthrotic

Fascicle organisation

affects muscle force production & range of movement, can be classified according to the muscle shape Parallel Convergent Uni / Bi / Multi Pennate Circular Flat Fusiform Quadrate Digastric

Prader-Willi syndrome

affects several body parts: weakened muscle, poor growth delayed development, learning impairment; obesity; distinct angular face; mostly infertile

Thoracic vertebrae (T1-T12):

all articulate with ribs Body is heart-shaped Spinous process is long, slender and projects inferiorly Vertebral foramen are circular Transverse processes bear facets for ribs (except T11 and T12) T1-T8 have superior and inferior costal facets, articulate with 2 pairs of ribs T9-12 have a single costal facet on each side

innervation of posterior compartment of forearm

all innervated by the radio nerve.

Omidon dentition

all teeth are the same structure (other animals)

Pancreatic juices

also enter duodenum to help breakdown acidity from chyme of the stomach

Ethmoid

anterior floor of cranium, roof of nasal cavity, medial wall of the orbits forms nasal septum (part) contains a 'paranasal air sinus' anteriorly (upper nasal cavity / nasal septum) superior & middle nasal conchae / turbinates cribriform plate & crista galli

Areas of the inferior mediastinum

anterior, medial, posterior

Germ cells

any biological cell that gives rise to the gametes of an organism that reproduces sexually, can undergo meiosis as well as mitosis. Form the link between generations. Separating the germline from somatic lineages is one of the first decisions made by the embryo

phylogenic tree branch length

arbitrary unless specifically specified

Interlobular arteries

arcuate artery branches in to smaller arteries that dominate cortex

tendons

are bands of regular connective tissue that connect a skeletal muscle to an element of the skeleton. It is poorly vascularised

Deep veins of lower limb

are deep in the deep fascia and accompany all major arteries and their branches. In the leg, usually two veins course together with the respective artery, whereas at the thigh and the popliteal fossa only one concomitant vein is found

Meatus

area between the conchae

Hilum of the lung

area into which the root of the lung enters.

Joints

area where adjacent bones interact, an articulation

Arcuate arteries

arise from interlobar arteries, supply base of pyramids/medulla then

Splenius muscles

arise from the spinous processes of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae and extend laterally. These muscles can extend the neck, laterally flex it and rotate it. Splenius capitis m. Splenius cervicis m.

Superficial fibular nerve course

arises between fibularis longus and neck of fibula, descending in the lateral compartment of the leg. Subsequently it pierces the deep fascia of the distal leg and splits into two terminal subcutaneous nerve branches at the distal third of the leg

Deep fibula nerve course

arises between fibularis longus and the neck of the fibula, enters into the anterior compartment of leg, descending together with the anterior tibial artery to the dorsum of the foot.

Axial musculature

arises on the axial skeleton. Positions the head and vertebral column and assists in breathing by moving the rib cage. muscles of head and neck Muscles of the vertebral column Oblique and rectus muscles Muscles of the perineum and the pelvic diaphragm

Major Alar cartilage

around the nose tip

Atrial fibrillation

arrhythmia caused at atriums

Ventricle fibrillation

arrhythmia caused at ventricles

which has higher blood pressure arteries or veins

arteries

Elastic (or conducting) arteries

arteries near the heart, largest in diameter and most elastic as they contain most elastin than any other blood vessels (Extra elastin allows them to handle large pressure) aorta brachiocephalic common carotid subclavian common iliac

Arthrology

articular system

Clavicle

articulates with manubrium of sternum, is the only direct connection between the pectoral girdle and axial skeleton. The lateral end (acromial end) articulates with the acromial process of scapula.

Septal cartilage

at front of nose

Cranial

at the head end

Caudal

at the rear or tail end

Lesser omentum

attached at lesser curvature, stabilises position of stomach Lesser and greater omenta house (or convey) the blood vessels and nerves of the stomach

Great omentum

attached at the great curvature, its adipose tissue protect the abdomen Lesser and greater omenta house (or convey) the blood vessels and nerves of the stomach

Sigmoid mecocolon

attaches to sigmoid colon of large intestine

Mesentary proper

attaches to small intestine

Lesser omentum

attaches to stomach and liver

Arytenoid cartilage

attachment point for vocal ligaments

Visceral system

automatic nervous system

Lateral

away from the midline of the body

Retraction

backwards movement

function of fibula

bears no body weight, important for attachment

Chimpanzee vs modern human pelvis morphology

became broader and shorter for bipedalism and birthing

Segmental arteries

before reaching hilum, renal arteries branch, supplying around renal pelvis and major calices

Basilic vein

begins from medial aspect of the dorsal venous network of the hands and continues on the ulnar ventral side of forearm

Inferior mediastinum location

below the sternal angle

Laryngopharynx (hypopharynx)

below tip of epiglottis, continuous with esophagus

Oropharynx

between soft palate and tip of epiglottis, posterior to palatoglossal arch

Blondism

blond hair on darkly pigmented individuals who would be expected to have dark hair one theory is that it results form interbreeding Now found that it evolved independently, no mechanical advantage (genetic drift)

Unpaired organs blood supply

blood supply from unpaired blood vessels that branch of anterior part of abdominal aorta (celiac trunk, superior and inferior mesenteric arteries) Organs above transverse mesocolon receive blood from celiac trunk Right organs below transverse mesocolon receive blood from superior mesenteric artery Left organs below transverse mesocolon receive blood from inferior mesenteric artery

Lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5):

body is massive and kidney shaped, largest as the bear the most weight spinous process is short and projects directly posteriorly Vertebral foramen is triangular Transverse process is long and slender No articular facets

Cervical vertebrae (C1-C7):

body is small and wide laterally (oval) - only support weight of head Spinous processes are short and bifid Vertebral foramen are large and triangular, for blood supply to brain Transverse processes contain transverse foramina

Weight bearing areas of the foot

body weight is equally divided between the hind foot (calcaneus) and the forefoot (heads of metatarsals) Between these weight bearing points are the relatively elastic arches of the foot

Dental cement

bone-like tissue that covers the external surface of tooth roots. Cement is composed by an organic matrix (almost made up of collagen fibres) and by a mineral component. The function of the cement is to attach the periodontal ligament to the surface of the root

what composes the viscerocranium

bones of the face

Conchae

bony elevations help air to become more turbulent, warmer, less humid

Male and female urinary systems:

both contain bilateral kidneys, renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder Female urethra is short, male urethra is longer and contains multiple parts Position of urinary bladder changes slightly in females due to presence of uterus

Rhomboidei muscles and elevator scapula m.

both involved in fixing the scapula to trunk and pull it medially and superiorly

Superficial layer of posterior forearm is formed by six muscles:

brachioradialis ECRL ECRB Extensor digitorum m. Extensor digit minimi m. ECU

what composes the neurocranium bones

brain case

Central nervous system (CNS)

brain, spinal cord, nerves

Bronchial arteries

branch from the anterior wall of the descending thoracic aorta and supply structures in the bronchial tree

Celiac trunk (artery)

branch of the abdominal aorta and supplies all organs (liver, stomach, spleen) which are located intraperitoneally and above the transverse mesocolon. Supplies only superior parts of the pancreas and duodenum as both these organs are located above and below the transverse mesocolon

Interlobar arteries

branches of segmental arteries that supply areas around minor calices, lateral aspect of medulla and areas around renal columns.

Hair is divisible into three zones along its length:

bulb root shaft

action of Muscles of foot

can be divided into muscles of sole and dorsum Intrinsic muscles of the foot help to flex, extend, abduct and adduct the toes. However the major function is to support the arches of the foot

Skin colour can be influenced by:

carotene haemoglobin melanin

articulating bones and structure and function type of carpometacarpal of digit 1 (thumb) joint

carpal (trapezium) and metacarpal 1, synovial saddle, diarthrotic

articulating bones and structure and function type of carpometacarpal joints of digits 2-5 joint

carpals and metacarpals, synovial plane, diarthrotic

Arteries

carry blood away from the heart (mostly carry oxygenated blood), mostly under high blood pressure

Veins

carry oxygen poor blood (except for pulmonary veins)

Arteries

carry oxygen rich blood

Pulmonary veins

carry oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart Superficial and deep veins are present Veins of extremities contain valves Small and medium veins contain valves Veins have low blood pressure (0-10 mmHg, average 7 mmHg) Veins of extremities have valves which act to stop back flow of the blood

Theories of advantages to bipedalism:

carrying objects, tools, weapons, infants Hunting Seed and nut gathering Feeding from bushes Thermoregulation Visual surveillance Long-distance walking Male provisioning

Epiphyseal plates

cartilage in both ends of growing long bone, site of bone growth to lengthen the bone. Epiphyseal plates are replaced in early adulthood (~18-21 years) with bone and appear as an epiphyseal line. On an x-ray can look like a fracture

Active migration

cell-cell communication between germ cells and other somatic cells that help guide them towards gonads

Merkel cells

cells associated with nerve terminals and have a role in detecting sensation

what does the metencephalon primarily form

cerebellum (and pons)

what does the telencephalon primarily form

cerebrum

Acceleration

character of the organism develops at a slower rate in descendent compared to ancestor

Neoteny

character of the organism develops at a slower rate in descendent compared to ancestor

Lower molars

characterised by four or five major cusps. Their outlines can be squared, rectangular or oblong. Lower molars have usually two major roots, but occasionally have three.

outer cortex

characterised by hard keratin

Molars

characterised by larger and squarer crowns, and bear more cusps than other teeth. Molars usually have multiple roots.

Mosaic evolution

characteristics develop at different rates (true for hominids)

Buccunator movement

cheeks

Circumduction

circular movement with one end stationary and one end tracing a circle

Tunica media

circularly arranged smooth muscle cells. Contraction/relaxation changes vessel diameter

Cardiology

circulatory system

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

clear, colourless body fluid found in the brain and spinal cord CSF locations: Between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater Inside the ventricles (2 lateral, 3rd and 4th) CSF functions: Protection Removing the metabolic waste

Proximal

closest to the point of attachment to trunk

Tendons

collagen bands that connect a skeletal muscle to bone. Tendons passing across or around a joint may limit the joint's range of motion and provide mechanical support.

Larger bronchial veins

collect venous blood and drain into the azygos and hemiazygous systems of veins

Vulva

collective term fro external female genitalia: mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, prepuce, vestibule

Cephalic vein

collects blood from lateral aspects of dorsal venous networks of the hands and runs on the radial ventral side of forearm to the cubital fossa

phylogenic tree branch point

common ancestor of two evolutionary lineages diverging from it

Nervous system

complex collection of specialised neural cells called (neurons) that transmit signals between different parts of the body

Nasal cavity

component of the Upper Respiratory Tract Lined with specialised 'respiratory-type epithelium' - containing seromucus glands Mucus secretions protect epithelium Warms & humidifies inhaled air Provides immunological & mechanical (ciliary clearing) defence against infective & inert particles

Integumentary system

composed of skin and its derivatives; hair, nails, sweat glands, oil glands and mammary glands

External abdominal oblique m.

compress underlying structures and rotate and flex trunk

Internal abdominal oblique m.

compress underlying structures and rotate and flex trunk

Nasal cavity lateral walls

comprised of hyaline cartilage & cranial bones Three paired projections & crevices to increase the surface area in contact with air: - Increase surface Superior, Middle & Inferior Conchae (projections) - Superior, Middle & Inferior Meatus (crevices between) Nasal 'cavity' is actually a small space

Obstetric dilemma

compromise between narrow pelvis for bipedalism and large enough to birth large brained babies pelvic inlet is larger in females In modern humans there is a change (twist) in the orientation of the head during birth due to change in pelvic inlet and outlet Babies are born facing the opposite direction in modern humans

types of isotonic contraction

concentric eccentric

Floating / vertebral ribs (ribs 11-12)

connect only to the vertebrae and back muscles have no connection with the sternum

Anterior and posterior intervertebral ligaments

connect the anterior and posterior surfaces of each vertebral body

Cartilage

connective tissue with a gelatinous matrix

Cystic duct

connects gallbladder to the common bile duct

Ligamentum flavium

connects the laminae of adjacent vertebrae

Interspinous ligament

connects tips of the spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae

arachnoid mater

connects to blood vessels

dura mater

connects to body structures

pia matter

connects to nervous system

Transversospinalis muscles

consist of three groups of muscles found in the groove between the transverse and spinous processes They work in various combinations to produce slight extension and rotation of vertebral column

Binomal nomenclature

consist of two parts of scientific name, "genus species" Hierarchical classification Taxonomic unit = taxon

white matter (cerebrum)

consisting of neuronal cell axons: Internal parts of the cerebrum

grey matter (cerebrum)

consisting of neuronal cell bodies: external surface and cerebral nuclei

Spermatic cord

consists of a series of muscle and fascial layers, and carries the testicular artery and vein Sperm exit the epididymis and enter the ductus (vas) deferens Thick-walled tube that travels within the spermatic cord The cord passes through the inguinal canal, which is an oblique channel through the abdominal body wall

Vertebral arch

consists of pair of pedicles and laminae supporting 7 processes: four articular, two transverse, one spinous

Superficial venous system of arm

consists of two major lined which collect venous blood from the hand

Dental occlusion

contact between opposing upper and lower teeth during jaw closure. It is the position of the lower teeth within the upper dental arcade that affords maximum contact between the cusps and occlusal grooves of the cheek teeth

Seminlunar valves

contain cusps, do not have chordae tendineae like the atrioventricular valves

inner medulla

containing relatively soft and flexible keratin

Cartilage

contains chondrocytes and extracellular matrix with varying densities of collagen. Does not heal quickly because it is avascular, receives nutrients and O2 via diffusion Resilient, semirigid form of dense connective tissue that: Is resistant to compressive forces covers the articulating surfaces of bones forms parts of the skeleton where more flexibility is required.

Papillae layer

contains dermal papillae, maximises surface for nourishment and gas exchange with epidermis, also makes connection tighter/more secure

Stratum spinosum

contains langerhans cells

Renal sinus

contains minor/major calices, renal pelvis, renal fat, blood vessels, located inside the kidney

medial region of the inferior mediastinum contains...

contains the heart, lies left of the midline

Saphenous nerve

continuation of posterior division of femoral nerve, supplies the skin of anteromedial aspects of knee, leg and foot

flexion of muscle

contraction (shortening) of muscles on anterior side

extension of muscle

contraction (shortening) of muscles on posterior side

Olfactory nerve (I)

conveys special sensory information related to smell penetrate the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone Sensory nerve Has branches into superior nasal cavity

Cerebellum

coordinate muscle movements (contraction and relaxation), balance

Brachial Plexus topography infra clavicular zone

cords give rise to terminal branches which leave the axila to continue into the arm, forearm and hand

skeletal muscle epimysium

covers the entire skeletal muscle and separates muscle from surrounding tissues and organs

Endocardium

covers valves of heart, endothelium and areolar connective tissue

Canines

crowns are conical and tusk-like. Canine roots are longer that other roots in the same dentition. There is a single main central cusp.

Premolars

crowns are round, shorter than canine crows and taller than molar crowns.

Upper molars

crowns have three or four cusps. The outline of the crowns resembles the shape of a rhombus. They have usually three major roots that are variable fused

Function of vertebral column curves

curves increase the column strength Curves help maintain balance in the upright position They absorb shock during walking, and help to protect the vertebrae from fracture Bring body weight in line with body axis and its centre of gravity

Intervertebral discs

cushion-like pads of fibrous cartilage between vertebrae that act as shock absorbers. Not in sacrum and coccyx support and protection for spinal nerves Absorb shock and stress Seperate vertebrae Increase flexibility of vertebral column

Muscles of the forearm anterior compartments

deep and superficial

Veins of the lower limb

deep veins and superficial veins

Veins of upper limb deep:

deep venous system

Enamel hypoplasia

defect during growth, cause could me malnutrition, disease, stress...

Ligaments

dense band of connective tissue fibres that attach one bone to another

Fibrous skeleton of the heart

dense irregular connective tissue within the septa Anchors heart valves by forming supportive rings Electrical insulation between atria and ventricles; ensures that muscle impulses are timed properly Provides a rigid framework for the attachment of cardiac muscle tissue

Systemic veins carry

deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart

Cross-striation

deposit a layer every day

Bands of rezius

deposited layer every 7 days, relates to biological rhymes (we think)

Progenesis

development ends early in descendant compared to ancestors

Hypermorphosis

development ends late in descendant compared to ancestors

Popliteal fossa

diamond shaped hollow surrounded by four muscles; biceps femoris muscle on the superolateral border, the semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscles on the superomedial border, and the two heads of the gastrocnemius m. on the two inferior borders

Modern human morphology

differ from recent humans primarily in their large posterior teeth and facial robusticity short, round and high brain case High forehead Smaller nose Presence of chin Rounded occipital No retromolar space

Heterodont dentition

different subtypes of teeth, dentition doesn't change or regenerate (mammals)

Heterochrony

differential rates of development among cell lines within the organism leading to changes in size and/or shape

Gastroenterology

digestive system

Hypothenar intrinsic compartment of hand muscles

digiti minimi muscles

Visceral layer

directly covers outer surface of the heart, hard to remove

Transverse plane

divide the body in to superior and inferior portions

Muscles of the forearm posterior compartments

divided into superficial and deep layers

Nasal septum

divides nasal cavity into right and left sides, formed from bone and cartilage

Frontal plane

divides the body into anterior/dorsal and posterior/ventral portions

Sagittal plane

divides the body into right and left sides

skeletal muscle perimysium

divides the skeletal muscles into a series of compartments (fascicles). It contains blood vessels and nerves

Anthropometry

dividing races by morphology of the skull Caucasian (white race) Mongolian (yellow race) Malayan (brown race) Ethiopian (black race) American (red race)

False ribs / Vertebrochondral ribs (ribs 8-10)

do not attach directly to the sternum fuse together merge with cartilage before reaching the sternum

Accessory digestive organs

do not come in direct contact with the food e.g. Liver and pancreas

Splenic veins

drains blood from pancreas and spleen

Inferior mesenteric vein

drains into the splenic vein, drains large intestine, drains parts of descending colon and part of sigmoid colon

Hepatic portal vein

drains only unpaired organs (liver, pancreas, stomach, intestines)

Inferior Vena Cava

drains parts of body below diaphragm

Superior mesenteric vein

drains small intestine, ascending colon and parts of transverse colon of large intestine

Middle cardiac vein

drains the interventricular septum runs alongside the posterior interventricular artery

Great cardiac vein

drains the left heart (left atrium & ventricle) runs alongside the anterior interventricular artery

Small cardiac vein

drains the right heart (right atrium & ventricle) travels close to the right marginal artery

Nephrons

each kidney has up to 1 million nephrons Renal corpuscule has vascular area where blood vessels enter and exit glomerulus Renal corpuscule has tubula part where waste is excreted through proximal convoluted tubule. Takes toxins out of kidney and down into collecting ducts

Sciatic nerve course

eaves pelvis by passing through greater sciatic notch, inferior to piriformis and deep to gluteus maximum. From there it descends through to the posterior thigh deep to the hamstring muscles, medially to hip joint. The exception is the short head of biceps femoris muscle which is innervated by the common fibular division of the sciatic nerve. Superior to knee region, (popliteal fossa = depression at back of knee) it branches into tibial nerve and common fibular nerve

monotremes

egg laying mammals milk from skin (non nipples) only in Australia / New Guinea

Passive movement

embryo development changes shape moving germ cells

Epicondyle

eminence (projection) that is superior or adjacent to a condyle. Not every condyle has a epicondyle

Endocrinology

endocrine system

Cadavers

entire human bodies used for teaching anatomy by dissection

amniotic egg amnion

envelops developing embryo and amniotic fluid (aqueous medium) to cushion against shock

heart wall layers

epicardium myocardium endocardium

Angelmans syndrome

epilepsy, tremors, constant smiling, learning problems

Kyphosi

excessive posterior thoracic curvature, hunchback, caused by osteoporosis, abnormal vertebral growth or neuromuscular disorders

properties of skeletal muscle

excitability contractibility extensibility elasticity

Pleural cavity

exists between parietal and visceral pleura it is normal to have fluid in this cavity

Urinary bladder

expandable muscular reservoir for urine Subperitoneal Shaped like an upside down pyramid when empty, when full it is distended superiorly and oval shaped Connects to perineum vis urethra Detrusor muscle

What action is the posterior compartment of the arm responsible for?

extension

Plantar flexion

extension of ankle joint, points toes downwards

Lordosis

extensive anterior lunar curvature, swayback, due to obesity, pregnancy or weakness of muscle is abdominal wall

action of arm posterior compartment

extensors of forearm

Muscles of anterior thigh compartment actions

extensors of knee and flexors of hip

Tetrapods: amphibia

external fertilisation (eggs in water) Larva aquatic (gills, finned tails) Adults have legs, lungs, are often terrestrial and live in moist habitats

Neural tube defects (NTDs)

failure of neural tube closure NTDs : one of the most common birth defects (approx 1: 1000) Occurs early in pregnancy (first trimester)

Achalasia

failure of sphincters to open

Retinaculum

fascia that holds tendons in place during flexion and extension

MRI T1

fat brightest

Sperm counts are low in species that:

females mate with a single male

articulating bones, function and structure of knee (femorpatellar) joint

femur and patella, synovial plane, diarthrotic

articulating bones, function and structure of knee (tibiofemoral) joint

femur and tibia, synovial modified hinge, diarthrotic

Chordae tendineae

fibres that attach cusps of tricuspid valve to the muscles from ventricle wall, play a vital role in holding the atrioventricular valves in place while the heart is pumping blood

keratin

fibrous structural proteinfound in skin: reptile/bird scales, mammal hair, fathers, horns, hooves, nail/claws, beaks

Hair

filamentous strands of dead keratinised cells produced by hair follicles

Bowman's capsule

filtration

Vellus hairs

fine, unpigmented hair found over much of the body surface

Lanugo hairs

fine, unpigmented hair that appears on the foetus in the last three months of development

Villi

fingerlike projections of the mucosa, increase intestinal surface area 30-fold

Microvilli

fingerlike structures on intestinal cells, increase intestinal surface area 600-fold

Evolution of tetrapods

fins started to develop digits developed a neck Stronger vertebral column Ribs reduced so body can move Supporting girdles (pelvic, shoulder) (tiktaalik - fish fossil found that had skeleton structure that suggested it could walk on its fins)

pharyngeal slits / clefts chordate character

first functioned as suspension-feeding devices (filter feeding)feeding breathing other structures

Sternum bony landmarks

flat bone in the middle of the thoracic wall. Manubrium Sternal body of the pectoral girdle Xiphoid process - cartilaginous and ossifies in later life. Attachment for diaphragm and rectus abdominsi

Anatomical planes

flat surface that segments the body

Nuchal plane

flattened bony area of the occipital to the rear of the foramen magnum that provides surface area for the attachment of neck muscles throughout evolution became more horizontal

Orthognathic face

flatter face

What action is the anterior compartment of the arm responsible for?

flexion

Opposition

flexion and abduction brings tip of thumb to tip of finger

Dorsiflexion

flexion of ankle joint, elevation of the sole to point foot superiorly

Deep anterior forearm layer 3 muscles:

flexor digitorum profundus m Flexor pollicis longus m Pronator quadratus m

MRI T2

fluid brightest

Mesenteries

folds of peritoneum that support the intraperitoneal GA tract organs, contain vessels, nerves, and lymphatics

Cadaveric material

following embalming, cadaveric material can be used in multiple ways Two categories of cadaveric material: wet specimens dry specimens

Sacrum changes for bipedalism

for better weight distribution sacroiliac joint surface becomes broader Sacrum is wider and shorter

Collecting duct

for urine

Bony landmarks: Passage:

foramen

Peristalsis in the GI tract

forces food to move through GI tractinfant of food: contraction of longitudinal muscles and relaxation of circular musclesBehind food: relaxation of longitudinal muscles and contraction of circular muscles

X-rays

form of electromagnetic radiation, x-ray emitted from source, project towards detector, structure to be imaged situated between projector and detector. X-ray travels through low density structures and are absorbed by higher density structure, this is reflected in the image, denser areas appear more white Information on a plate is 3D data compressed into a 2D image

Neurulation

formation of the neural tube (future brain and spinal cord)

Sacral plexus

formed form roots of spinal nerves L4-L5 and S1-S4 which supplies the buttocks, perineum and lower limbs. Located anterior to the sacrum, provides motor control and receives sensory information

Lumbar plexus

formed from roots of spinal nerves L1-L4 (also contribution from T12) that supplies the anterolateral abdominal wall, external genitals and parts of lower limbs (hip and thigh)

tibial nerve course

forms as popliteal fossa just posterior to knee joint, then descends through calf deep to soleus m (posterior region of leg). At the ankle it passes posterior to the medial malleolus (bony projection on tibia) dividing into medial and lateral plantar nerves

Common fibular nerve course

forms at popliteal fossa just posterior to the knee joint, following the medial border of biceps femoris m. Enters superior part of the leg wrapping around the neck of the fibula where it branches into deep and superficial fibular nerves

Myelencephalon

forms medulla oblongata Control of Respiration via signals from the carotid chemoreceptors, regulates oxygen levels in blood Control of vomiting, coughing, sneezing

Dentine

forms most of the tooth. Composed by mineral component (about 48%) and organic matrix based on collagen fibres. dentine underlies the enamel of the crown and encapsulates the pulp cavity, the central soft tissue within a tooth

Protraction

forward movement

Multiple renal arteries

found in 43.28% of patients 27.23% had 3 arteries 11.56% had 4 arteries 2.98% and 1.49% hd 5 and 6 arteries

Inferior pharyngeal constrictor

found in the laryngopharynx, attaches around larynx, and has two components. The superior component (thyropharyngeus) has oblique fibres that attach to the thyroid cartilage and the inferior component (cricopharyngeus) has horizontal fibres that attach to the cricoid cartilage

Middle pharyngeal constrictor

found in the laryngopharynx, attaches to hyoid bone

CNS blood supply

four arteries, branches into network so if there is an issue there will still be blood supply

Enamel and denton is formed from ??

from an incremental growth line, deposited in layers

Deep fibula nerve origin

from common fibular nerve

Superficial fibular nerve origin

from common fibular nerve

Gut tube (GI tract)

from mouth to anus Mouth and anus have striated muscle for voluntary control, everything else in gut tube has smooth muscle Oesophagus Stomach Small intestine - where most absorption takes place Large intestine - further absorption of water and salts Colon (L1)

Sensory nerves

from the body to the spinal cord

Motor nerves

from the spinal cord innervate (control the contraction of) skeletal muscles, compromised of motor neurons, are voluntary, make up somatic nervous system The stronger the contraction needed, the more motor neurons 'fire' If even more contraction is needed, more motor nerves can be recruited, innervating more fascicles within a single muscle or surrounding muscles

Motor nerves

from the spinal cord to the body

Incisors

function as cutting or shearing tools during mastication. Incisors crowns are flat and blade-like. Incisors have normally one root with flattened sides.

Cornea

function refracts (bends) light The most transparent tissue in the body Anterior surface = epithelium (edges continuous with conjunctiva) Middle = collagen fibers (protein, not cells) Posterior surface = epithelium Avascular

Conjunctiva

function: Provides mechanical protection & lubrication Epithelium with secretory cells, fibrous tissue & conjunctival blood vessels Covers posterior surface of eyelids and reflects to cover anterior surface of eyeball *Anatomically independent of the cornea, but histologically the anterior epithelium is continuous Conjunctiva extends over the anterior sclera but not as far as extraocular muscle attachment

Lens

function: Refracts (bends) light onto retina to focus on images/objects (AKA accommodation) Second most transparent tissue in the body Avascular Biconvex disc: connective tissue capsule, epithelial layer, layered crystalline lens fibers (not cells) Suspensory ligaments (aka zonular fibers) anchor edges of lens to ciliary muscles (smooth muscle) Action of ciliary muscles is controlled parasympathetic stimulation Contraction/relaxation of ciliary muscles adjusts the curvature of lens Curvature of lens adjusts the focus Curvature alters the refraction of light for near or far vision To focus, ciliary muscles can contract/relax, pulling on suspensory ligaments altering the curvature of the lens Flatter lens to focus on distant images/objects Rounder lens to focus on closer images/objects

Renal papilla (apex of medulla)

funnels urine from the nephrons after filtration through the minor calices, into major calices, into renal pelvis and out through ureter

Distal

furthest from point of attachment to trunk

Sacral vertebrae (sacrum)

fuse together during adolescence into one immobile bone. Fusion complete ~25-30. Typically formed from 5 segments but can be 4-6. provides strength and stability to the pelvis Transmits weight of body to pelvic girdle through sacroiliac joint 4 pairs of lateral sacral foramina for exit of posterior and anterior rami of spinal nerves

amniotic egg chorion

gas exchange

Rugae

gastric folds in stomach held in mechanical digestion of food, muscles will convert food into chyme

Long term physiological change

genetic evolutionary change - characterising all individuals within a population or species

Sertoli cells

germ cell "nurse" cells (discovered by Enrico Sertoli, Italy 1865) from basement membrane to lumen Functions include: support many germ cells at different stages Sex determination: Express SRY Developmental: Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) - early stages of fetal life, drives regression of female redropuctive structures Hormonal regulation: Inhibin and activins - regulate FSH secretion after puberty Stem cell regulation: GDNF - ensures self-renewal of spermatogonial stem cells Form the blood-testis barrier, stop body recognising sperm as foreign

Sweat glands

glands situated in the dermis that produce sweat

Sebaceous glands

glands that secrete sebum, a waxy secretion that seats the surface of hairs

Synovial joint movements

gliding movement, angular movement, circumduction, rotation

Types of synovial joints

gliding, condylar, hinge, saddle, pivot, ball and socket

Genital ridge

gonads in both male and female embryos follow a common developmental pathway from genital ridge NOTE: The germ cells, developing separately, also considered to have no intrinsic gender identity

The neck muscles of gorillas

gorilla has large spinous processes for attachment of muscle

Tooth wear

gradual loss of tooth surface, due to physiological processes Strong relationship between diet and tooth wear allows reconstruction of evolutionary ancestors diets Harder brittle foods = more dents Soft tough food = more scratches

Modern Homo sapiens brain

greatly increased brain size, highly encephalised

Adductor group in thigh

group of 5 muscles that are located inferior to the acetabular surface. These are most important adductors of the thigh and stabilises the hip during standing and walking

Rotator cuff muscles

group of four muscles and their tendons that surround the head of humerus. Rotator cuff supports and strengthens the joint capsule throughout a Wide range of movements Infraspinatus m. Teres minor m. Supraspinatus m. Subscapularis m.

phylogenic tree sister taxa

groups of organisms that share a common ancestor that isn't shared by any other groups

Cranium growth

growth is concurrent with brain development: Brain is: 25% of its adult size at birth, 75% by 2yrs, complete by 10yrs

Adams apple (laryngeal prominence)

growth on thyroid cartilage due to testosterone

Intermediate hairs

hairs that change in their distribution, such as the hairs on the upper and lower limbs

Advantages of bipedalism

hands are free to carry objects, make and use tools Wider range of view Efficient means of covering long distance

Cardiac conducting system

has its own action potentials, doesn't need direction from nervous system to move, but innervation can control amount of contraction SA node AV node

amniotic egg

have a shell to slow dehydration of egg in air

Cadaveric specimens

have been dried and are also useful for anatomy education

Upper premolars

have two main cusps: buccal and lingual. The buccal and lingual cusps are of nearly equal size. Their crowns are characterised by strong occlusal grooves oriented mesio-distally between the major cusps. Upper crowns are also more oval in occlusal outline. They tend to have double roots

Bony landmarks: Articular surfaces

head neck condyle epicondyle

Dolichocephaly

head is characterised by a width that measures less than 75% of its length

Epiphysis

head of a long bone, proximal or distal

Brachycephaly

head shows a width that is more than 80% of its length (Mostly found in northern latitudes due to dry cold to minimise SA for heat loss)

temporal lobe

hearing

cardiac muscle location

heart

Arrhythmia

heart contraction starts becoming erratic and out of order, amount of blood flowing into vessels isn't consistent

Cardiogenesis

heart is the first organ to function in the embryo Isolated blood islands in the embryo contribute to blood vessel formation Heart begins to beat at day 22 - 23

Terminal hairs

heavy, more deeply pigmented and sometimes curly. These hairs include the hairs of eyebrows, pubic hair and hair of the scalp

Sternocleidomastoid muscle

held scalene muscles to elevate the thorax, innervated by surgical spinal cord

Transverse abdominis m.

helps to compress and support abdominal viscera

Urochordates

highly modified, sessile chordates sea squirts

Out of Africa theory

homo erectus evolved in Africa, spread out of Africa around 100000 years ago, then replaced all the other homo groups in Europe, Asia, Australaisa. This would mean that Africans have the highest genetic diversity, which they do. All ancient fossils are found in Africa.

Orbital fossa

houses the eyes, made of fusion of many bones

Circle of Willis supplies the cerebrum via three cerebral arteries

however these arteries become connected Anterior cerebral artery - supplies anterior Middle cerebral artery - inferior to frontal/parietal, superior to temporal, supplies later cortex Posterior cerebral artery - supplies posterior

arcades is longer in jejunum or ileum

ileum

more fat in jejunum or ileum

ileum

Small intestine

important digestive and absorptive functions (carbohydrates, proteins and fat) Parts are the duodenum, jejunum and ileum Secretions and buffers provided by pancreas and gall bladder (liver) Begins at pyloric sphincter (stomach/small intestine transition) and ends at Ileocecal valve (small intestine/large intestine transition)

Jejunum

important digestive and absorptive functions (carbohydrates, proteins and fat) ~2m Begins at the duodena-jejunal flexure (junction) and has no clear anatomical boundary with ileum Intraperitoneal suspended by the mesentery proper

Rectus abdominis m.

important flexor of vertebral column, compresses abdomen and depresses ribs

Pampiniform plexus of testicular veins

important for temperature control

Early hominin tool making behaviour

in earliest stages unknown, no stone prior to 2.5mya, more oriented towards tool manufacture and use than chimpanzees

Superficial veins of lower limb

in the subcutaneous tissue and run independent from named arteries. This system consists of two main veins (great and small saphenous) which collect the blood from the dorsum and sole of the foot

Albinism

inability to produce melanin, still have same number of melanocytes. More common in Africa, more exposed to UVR and vulnerable to skin cancer, problems with vision, culturally can be considered "ghosts" and are hunted

Spina bifida

incomplete closure of posterior neural tube varies in severity vertebrae remain open, part of spinal cord is exposed causes neural disability risk greatly reduced by folic acid supplementation before conception familial or sporadic

Isometry

increase in size occurs without changing proportions/shape, e.g. snail shell, salamander

Kidney sympathetic innervation:

increase vasoconstriction, decrease vasodilation preganglionic sympathetic from least splanchnic nerve (T12) Synapse at aorticorenal ganglia Postganglionic sympathetic enter the kidney via renal plexus

cerebral cortex

increases surface area as brain cant enlarge due to skull

Neural plate

induced by growth factors from underlying notochord. Neural plate folds up to form neural tube and neural crest cells pinch off

Apocrine sweat glands

infrequent in the body (in armpit and pubic area), activated during puberty, larger, ducts connect to hair follicles, secrete water and viscous substance. In other species acts as pheromone signalling Body odour is produced by the breakdown of bacteria on skin by sweat

In cross section most hairs have 3 layers:

inner medulla outer cortex cuticle

smooth muscle control

innervated by the ANS or hormones, Involuntary contraction

Superficial fibular nerve distribution

innervates the extensor muscles of the lateral compartment of the leg (fibularis longus and fibulraris brevis muscles) supplies skin on distal third of anterior surface of leg and dorsum of foot

Deep fibula nerve distribution

innervates the extensor muscles of the leg (tibialis anterior m., extensor digitorium longus m., extensor hallucis longus m.) and dorsum of the foot (extensor digitorum brevis m and extensor hallucis brevis m.) supplies skin of first interdigital cleft between great and second toes

Serous (delicate) pericardium

inside the fibrous pericardium, contains a parietal and visceral layer

Dermatology

integumentary system

Exterior intercostal muscles

interconnect ribs and contract to help with expansion of thoracic cavity, innervated by the intercostal nerves

Supraspinous ligament

interconnects the tops of the spinous processes from C7 to the sacrum

Medial rotation

internal/inward rotation

Interosseous intrinsic compartment of hand muscles

interosseous muscles

What is in between the two divisions of the thalamus in the diencephalon?

interthalmic adhesion and third ventricle

where does the frontal sinus drain into?

into middle meatus

where does the maxillary sinus drain into?

into middle meatus

Mandible

intramembranous ossification, two halves fuse at centre of chin

Trochlear nerve (IV)

is a motor nerve that innervates only a single muscle: the superior oblique muscle of the eye

Pericardial cavity

is between the 2 serous layers & contains fluid film

Muscles of medial thigh compartment

is formed by 5 adductor muscles.

Intermediate mesoderm

is later called the urogenital crest, and is the origin of the kidneys and and gonads, urinary and genital systems are genetically linked

cholecystokinin peptide hormone

is secreted by the duodenum and jejunum, in response to food in the alimentary tract. The main stimulator for the secretion is the release of food (particularly fatty food) from the stomach into the duodenum triggers the release of bile from the gall bladder (liver produces bile that gets stored in gall bladder) in to the duodenum

Oculomotor nerve (III)

is the third cranial nerve innervates extrinsic eye muscles that enable most movements of the eye and raise the eyelid. innervate the intrinsic eye muscles that enable pupillary constriction and accommodation (ability to focus on near objects as in reading). Motor nerve

types of contraction

isometric isotonic

Common fibular nerve distribution

it innervates the short head of the biceps femoris m. (posterior compartment of the thigh) and supplies the skin on the lateral part of posterior aspect of leg via the lateral sural cutaneous nerve

If all sarcomeres are contracted within a skeletal muscle what happens to muscle length

it shortens to ~70% of its resting length The longer the myofibrils in a muscle, the greater range of motion Contraction force depends on total cross-sectional area, not muscle length The more fibres per cross sectional area thee more force a muscle can produce

What happens to the alveolar process if teeth are missing

it will be reabsorbed

Gnathostomes

jawed vertebrates, evolution of jaw allowed for greater availability of food sources most extant vertebrates are gnathostomes Jaws derived from pharyngeal slitsFirst occurred in placoderm fish

vasa recta is longer in jejunum or ileum

jejunum

walls are thicker in jejunum or ileum

jejunum

Multifidi m.

join transverse processes with spinous processes of superior adjacent vertebrae

Basilar artery

joining of the two vertebral arteries, divides to form the posterior communicating arteries

Nails

keratinous structure produced by epithelial cells in the nail root

Sphenoid bone

keystone of the skull unites cranial & facial bones contains a 'paranasal air sinus' encloses pituitary gland transmits the optic nerve provides attachments for lower jaw muscles

example of Cephalochordates and their information

lancelets - most like earlier chordates in appearance small (few cm) suspension feeder retain basic characters of chordate body plain

Trochanter

large blunt elevation, may refer to greater or lesser

Miocene, generalised hominoid dentition

large front teeth; molar teeth variable, depending on species, some have thin enamel caps, others thick enamel caps

Parietal Peritoneum

large membrane lines surface of body wall, is attached to abdominal and pelvic walls, secretes peritoneal fluid and stores fat

Greater omentum

large mesentery attaches at greater curvature of stomach and covers whole abdominal area

The femur evolutionary changes

larger acetabulum and head of femur to transmit weight

The tibia bipedal evolution

larger for more body weight distribution

Early hominin brain

larger than miocene forms, moderately encephalised, prior to 6mya, no more encephalised than chimpanzees

Gluteus maximus

largest and most superficial of the gluteal muscles. It is the most important extensor and lateral rotator of the hip

Femoral nerve

largest branch of lumbar plexus Sciatic nerve

Vallate/circumvallate

largest, ~8-12 in a V-shaped line anterior to the terminal grooveNumerous gustatory receptors

Common fibular nerve

lateral continuation of the sciatic nerve

Scoliosis

lateral curvature, due to development problems or muscular paralysis affecting one side of the back

hair root

layer of epithelial cells that produces the hair shaft

Deciduous teeth

less teeth, smaller, thinner enamel di (incisor); dc (canine); dm (molar)

Large intestine

lies around edges of abdominal cavity and is supported by the mesocolon it forms 4 colons (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid) Absorbs water and electrolytes from the remaining digested material to solidify into faeces Stores faecal material until ready to defecate Goblet cells secrete muscins to lubricate the undigested material to help it flow through

Erector spinae

lies in a groove of each side of the vertebral column, and it is the major extensor of the vertebral column Iliocostalis m. Longissimus m. Spinalis m. When they act only on one side there is lateral flexion of vertebral column

Elevation

lifting movement

Foliate

linear folds on lateral surfaces of tongue anterior to terminal groove Very few gustatory receptors

Para-nasal air sinuses

lined with a mucous membrane, continuous with (drains into) the nasal cavity

Parietal layer

lines inside of fibrous pericardium

Capillaries

link arteries with veins (capillaries between two veins are found in "portal systems") They are microscopic small (<10 um in diameter and on average 1 mm long)

Gut tube (GI tract) accessory structures

liver, gallbladder, pancreas

Fat pads

localised masses of adipose tissue covered by a layer of synovial membrane. Protect articular cartilage and act as packing material

AV node

located in the right atrium, slows down the activation and contraction of the ventricles From the AV node the signal travels along the AV bundle From the AV bundle the signal travels to the ventricles via the Purkinje fibers Contraction of ventricular muscle cells

Pancreas

located posterior to the stomach, head in curve f duodenum and tail extends to spleen. Retroperitoneal organ parasympathetic activity stimulates pancreatic juice secretion Sympathetic activity inhibits pancreatic juice secretion

post-anal tail chordate character

locomotion muscular

Laetoli footprint

longitudinal arch, toe off, adducted hallux, strong heel strike

Layers of muscle in the stomach

longitudinal layer Circular layer Oblique layer - innermost layer

mandible

lower jaw

Vertebra size evolution for bipedalism

lower vertebrae body increases to support weight in modern humans, also more lumbar that are more flexible to assist with upright weight bearing in pregnancy

Depression

lowering movement

Secondary curves

lumbar and cervical curvatures, develop during childhood in association with lifting the head and assuming upright sitting

Lumbarsacral plexus components

lumbar plexus and sacral plexus

Central intrinsic compartment of hand muscles

lumbricals and long flexor tendons

Pulmonary cavities contains...

lung, arteries, veins and bronchi

Prone

lying on abdomen, face downwards

action of Muscles of medial thigh compartment

main action is to adduct the thigh

Deltoid m.

major abductor of the arm. Its anterior part assists pectoralis major in flexing the arm. Its posterior part assists latissimus dorsi in extending the arm

Muscles of thigh actions

major actions are flexion of thigh at hip joint and extension of leg at knee joint

Aorta

major elastic artery that carries oxygen rich blood from heart to the whole body

Lateral epicondyle of humerus

major site of attachment for extensor forearm muscles

Medial epicondyle of humerus

major site of attachment for flexor forearm muscles

Primates

mammalian order including prosimians, monkeys, apes and humans, defined by anatomical and behavioural traits specialised limbs and locomotion Lack of dietary specialisation reflected in dentition Visual acuity and reduced sense of smell Neocortex expansion

which mammals have not 7 cervical vertebrae

manatee = 6, sloth = 5-9

MRI (magnetic resonance imagery)

measures hydrogen atom emission of a radio frequency in a strong magnetic field. Constructs imagery from detected frequencies picked up by a oil around the object Different techniques can weigh the signal from water and fat to show up differently as different substances have differing hydrogen levels

Pectoralis major m.

medial orator of the arm and in combination with latissimus dorsi, it is a powerful adductor of the arm

what does the myelencephalon primarily form

medulla oblongata

Mesocolon

mesentery attaches to large intestine

articulating bones and structure and function type of metacarpophalangeal (knuckle) joint

metacarpal and proximal phalanx, synovial condylar, diarthrotic

articulating bones, function and structure of metatarsophalangeal joint

metatarsals and proximal phalanx, synovial condylar, diarthrotic

what does the mesencephalon primarily form

midbrain

early teeth proceeding teeth are called?

milk (or deciduous) dentition which precedes the adult teeth and occupies the same position in jaws

Dental calculus

mineral plaque is formed through deposition and bacterial activity. Can analyse what is trapped in it to determine diet

Early hominin dentition

moderately large incisors; canines somewhat reduces, molar tooth enamel caps very thick

Bicondylar angle

modern humans brings centre of gravity back below the bod

The talus bipedal evolution

modern humans has parallel articular surface rather than angles as they don't need flexibility just stability

three groups of amniotes: mammals

monotremes marsupials eutheria

Spurt muscle

more oblique to the axis of bones to which it is attached, capable of rapid and effective movement

Eumelanin

most abundant type of human melanin (brown to black), found in high concentrations in darker skin phenotypes

Merocrine sweat glands (Eccrine sweat glands)

most common (more than 90%), smaller, creates true sweat. Single duct that secretes sweat through a sweat pore in the epidermis. Found on palm of hands and sole of feet. Function for thermoregulation

Function of the skull

most complex region of the axial skeleton Supports and protects the: Brain, Special sense organs, Site for voice, expression, mastication Accommodates the first part of the respiratory and digestive systems Provides attachment site for muscles of the head and neck

Axial skeleton detail of bones

most involved in supporting and protecting functions Skull: cranium, mandible and auditory ossicles (28 bones) Hyoid bone (1 bone) Vertebral column: vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx (26 bones) Thoracic cage: sternum, ribs (25 bones)

Glenohumeral Joint

most mobile joint in human body, therefore weakest

Flexion

movement along the sagittal plane, decreases the angle between two body parts

Extension

movement along the sagittal plane, increasing the angle between two body parts

Abduction

movement away from the longitudinal axis of the body (always refers to appendicular body)

Adduction

movement towards midline of body (always refers to appendicular body)

Skin colour and vitamin D synthesis

moving into northern latitudes they experienced less UVR. Although most of the effects of UVR are harmful, the rays perform one indispensable function: initiating the formation of vitamin D (not common in nature) in the skin The vitamin D endocrine system is involved in the regulation of many independent biological processes including bone metabolism, the innate immune response, cell proliferation and differentiation Since dark skin blocks the sunlight necessary for catalysing the production of vitamin D, modern humans living at northern latitudes evolved independently of depigmented and tannable skin to favour the synthesis of vitamin D.

femoral nerve distribution

muscle of anterior compartment of thigh (iliopsoas m., satorius m., quadriceps femoris muscles) Saphenous nerve supplies the skin of the medial aspect of leg and foot anterior division - includes branch that innervates the sartorius muscle Posterior division - supplies branches to the quadriceps femoris, and a terminal cutaneous branch that is the saphenous nerve

Fixators

muscle that acts as a stabiliser one part of the body during movement of another part

Synergist

muscle that helps larger agonist work efficiently

what does skeletal muscle consist of

muscle tissue, connective tissues, nerves and blood vessels

Antagonist

muscle whose action opposes particular agonist

Agonist (prime mover)

muscle whose contraction is mainly responsible for producing particular movement

Antral region (pump)

muscles contract phyasically (3x per minute)If pyloric sphincter is closed, retropulsion occurs back into stomach, triturating foodPyloric sphincter - joins pyloric region of stomach to the duodenum

tibial nerve distribution

muscles of posterior compartment of the leg which are mostly involved in plantarflexion at the ankle joint and leg flexion at knee joint. (gastrocnemius m., soleus m., flexor hallucis longus m., flexor digitorum longus m., tibialis posterior m.) supplies also the skin of the posterolateral side of the leg and the sole of the foot. Plantar nerves supply the intrinsic muscles of the foot Distal to the tarsal tunnel a narrow space found posterior to the medial malleoulus the tibial nerve ends with sensory branches that supply the sole of the foot

Sciatic nerve distribution

muscles of posterior compartment of thigh (semitendinosus m., semimembranosus m, long head of biceps femoris m) supplies no muscles in the gluteal region. Supplies all of lower limbs except for medial and anterior aspect of thigh. Supples hamstring muscles through its tibial division, these muscles are responsible for extending thigh and flexing knee.

Muscle compartments (muscle group)

muscles within a specific area/region contribute to similar movements, compartments are separated by tough fascia Each region of the limbs contains (at least) an anterior and a posterior muscle compartment Muscles within the same compartment will be innervated by the same motor nerve (some exceptions to rule)

Myology

muscular system

Embalming process

must commence as soon as possible to delay decomposition process. Limited use if not embalmed Catheter inserted into a major artery and 'flushed' with embalming fluid Flushing a donor body takes ~24 hours and 20-25L of embalming fluid depending on body size Stored in a cool room for a minimum of 3 months for adequate tissue saturation

Sliding filament theory

myosin heads temporarily bind to actin sites and pull to generate muscle contraction All muscles contain: actin (thin filaments) Myosin (thick filaments)

Lower canines

narrow and relative to their height. Their root is often more compressed in section than the upper. Lower canines sometimes have an accessory root, never seen in the upper

The increased cranial capacity of neanderthal could be related to:

neanderthals had larger body size Adaptation to the cold environment they lived i

dorsal

nearer to back of body, mostly used when talking about embryos

ventral

nearer to front of body, mostly used when talking about embryos

Neurology

nervous system

dorso hollow nerve chord chordate character

nervous system located dorsally of the notochord and is hollow

Hepatic portal system

network of veins that caries blood from GI tract and spleen to the liver as this blood contains a lot of toxins diffused from GI tract. Liver receives and takes up nutrients and other molecules absorbed from the intestines before blood is returned to the heart via the inferior vena cava.

Perikymata

normal growth lines from deposits

External nares

nostrils

the four chordate characters

notochord dorso hollow nerve chord pharyngeal slits / clefts post-anal tail

Sartorius muscle (tailor muscle)

obliquely crosses the anterior aspect of the thigh to medially attach at the tibia. It flexes the hip and knee joints. It also weakly abducts the thigh and laterally rotates it

Cranial nerves:

olfactory nerve (I) optic nerve (II) oculomotor nerve (III) trochlear nerve (IV) trigeminal nerve (V) abducens nerve (VI) facial nerve (VII) vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) vagus nerve (X) accessory nerve (XI) hypoglossal nerve (XII).

Deep

on the inside underneath another structure

Superficial

on the outside

Deuterostomes

one of the major lineages of animals, vertebrates belong here Relatively small lineage defined by molecular changes Embryonic development characteristics Includes two phyla: echinoderms, chordates (vertebrates)

tibial nerve

one of the two terminal branches of sciatic nerve

Bronchi

only 2 secondary bronchus on left lung because there are two lobes on second lung, compared to the three lobed right lung

Bipedalism

only hominins use as primary form of locomotion

Thenar intrinsic compartment of hand muscles

opponens pollicis m., APB, FPB

Reposition

opposite to opposition, separates pad-to-pad contact between the thumb and another digit

Testis

optimal testes temperature ~34C, reason for being external to body (37C)

carotene

orange-yellow to red pigment found in certain plants, that the body can synthesis into vitamin A

Retro-peritoenal organs

organs that remain posterior to the peritoneal cavity, not suspended in the peritoneal cavity, luck mesenteries, are immobile e.g. kidney, pancreas, duodenum, ascending and descending colons of L1

Gluteus medium and minimus

originate interior to the gluteus maximus and insert upon the greater trochanter of the femur. They are the most important abductors and medial rotators of the thigh

femoral nerve origin

originated from anterior rami of nerves roots (L2, L3, L4) of lumbar plexus

Sciatic nerve origin

originates from anterior rami of spinal nerves (L3, L4, S1-S3) of the sacral plexus

Transverse colon

originates from hepatic flexure, transverse mesocolon Intraperitoneal

Ascending colon

originates from ileocecal valve of caecum Retroperitoneal

Common fibular nerve origin

originates from sciatic nerve

tibial nerve origin

originates from sciatic nerve

Sigmoid colon

originates from sigmoid flexure, sigmoid mesocolonIntraperitoneal

Descending colon

originates from splenic flexure Retroperitoneal

bones

osseous tissue, specialised cells and mineralised matrix

growth of the skull at birth

ossification is incomplete (Fontanelles, cranium)

Anulus fibrosus

outer collar of ligaments and concentric lamella of fibrocartilage. Functions to bind vertebrae together, hydraulically sealing nucleus pulpous. Resist tension on the spine and absorb compressive forces

Tunica externa

outer protective connective tissue layer.

cuticle

outermost layer, very resistant to chemical decomposition

Epicardium

outermost part is the visceral pericardium, just underneath is connective tissue and fat

leydig cells

outside seminiferous tubules produce testosterone

Lateral rotation

outwards rotation

how many skeletal muscles

over 600

Muscles of the tongue

palatoglossus styloglossus hyoglossus glenioglossus

Urination (micturition)

parasympathetic axons of the autonomic nervous system bladder fills with fine becomes expanded Stretches receptor in bladder wall activating the maturation reflex centre Activates parasympathetic nervous system, travels down internal urethral sphincter and detrusor muscle of bladder wall Detrusor contract, internal urethral sphincter relaxes, urine enters external urethral sphincter (voluntary control) Parasympathetic axons (pelvic splanchnic nerves) - come from the micturition reflex centre located in spinal cord segments S2-S4, stimulate urination Sympathetic axons - come from the T11-L2 segments of the spinal cord, inhibit micturition

parts of the Serous (delicate) pericardium

parietal layer visceral layer

Suprarenal gland

part of endocrine system that sit on top of the kidneys contain cortex and medulla Within cortex have secretions of hormones e.g. cortical steroid and androgen hormones Within medulla have secretion of hormones adrenal and noradrenalin Enclosed within renal fascia with kidneys, connect to kidneys via thin septum Superior aspect receives blood supply from superior suprarenal arteries off the inferior phrenic arteries Also receive blood from middle suprarenal arteries that runs of abdominal aorta Blood from inferior suprarenal artery that usually branches off renal artery

Duodenum

part of small intestine, originates from pyloric sphincter ~25cm long contains chyme with bile and pancreatic secretions Connects to the liver by the lesser omentum Retroperitoneal apart from the most proximal part which is intraperitoneal Covered by a lining of mucous membrane which protect the epithelium from the acid chyme that comes from the stomach

Body plans

particular set of morphological and developmental traits integrated into a functional whole Studies: organisation of tissuesTissues - specialised cell groups, separated by membranous layers Early embryology

Foramen

passage through a bone

Radial artery

passes along lateral aspect of forearm

Ulnar artery

passes along medial aspect of forearm

Proximal muscle end

place where the fixed end of the muscle attaches to a bone or cartilage

eutheria

placental mammals worldwide complex placenta long gestation period

Cadaveric pro-sections

portion of the human body that has been sectioned and dissected

Occipital bone

posterior foramen magnum squamous part & basilar part hypoglossal canal occipital condyles external occipital protuberance superior and inferior nuchal lines

Temporal bone

posterior & lateral (hearing & temporomandibular jt) squamous part & petrous part external & internal auditory meatus carotid canal mastoid process, styloid process mandibular (glenoid) fossa & articular tubercle

brachial plexus divisions

posterior to clavicles the trunks merge into anterior and posterior divisionsAnterior divisions - supply muscle of the anterior / flexor compartment of upper limb Posterior divisions - supply muscle of the posterior / extensor compartment of upper limb

Trigone

posteroinferior triangular area of the urinary bladder wall between the two posterior ureteral openings and the anterior urethral opening. It functions as a funnel to direct urine into the urethra as the bladder walls contract to evacuate stored urine

marsupials

pouched mammalsin Australia and Americas Simple placenta Short gestation and feeding (lactation) in pouch

Costs of upright posture in pregnant women

pregnant women have evolved a derived curvature and reinforcement of lumbar vertebrae to compensate for extra weight

Sphincters if GI tract

prevent reflux of bolus and digestive juices Lower oesophageal or cardiac Pyloric Sphincter of Oddi Ileocolic sphincter - between small and large intestine Internal anal sphincter

Right atrioventricular valve

prevents back flow of blood into the atrium when ventricle contracts, important for harnessing pressure to push blood into pulmonary trunk

Asexual reproduction

primary form of reproduction for multiple species may have short term benefits where population growth is critical BUT does not allow directly for genetic diversity, something very useful for adaptation to changing environments

Keratinocytes

principle cell found in epidermis and composed largely of filamentous proteins known as keratins

Amniotes: mammals

produce milk (mammary glands) Hair

Pancreas endocrine function

produces hormones (e.g. insulin, glucagon) Is ductless and delivers hormones directly Into blood stream

Pancreas exocrine function

production of enzymes to break down fat, proteins and carbohydrates Delivers its products into the duodenal lumen via its pancreatic duct

vertebrae Inferior processes

project caudally, each has a polished surface called an articular facet

vertebrae Superior processes

project cranially, each has a polished surface called an articular facet

Biomechanics of neanderthal skull morphology

projecting face doesn't bring mechanical advantage for mastication Neanderthal were not better adapted to sustain high loads no the anterior dentition (if compared to modern humans) Neanderthal nasal passage may represent an adaption to cold that improves of inspired air (though less efficiently than in modern humans) Neanderthal capacity of moving greater air volumes probably was an adaption to a more strenuous, energetically demanding lifestyle, which required higher calorific intakes

Prognathic face

projection of the face well in front of the brain case

Superficial anterior forearm layer 5 muscles:

pronator teres m. Flexor carpi radialis m Palmaris longus m Flexor carpi ulnaris m Flexor digitorium superficialis m

hair shaft

proportion above the skin surface

In the fourth week what structures does the nervous system develop in order from cranial to caudal?

prosencephalon mesencephalon rhomencephalon spinal cord

Brachial artery

provides main arterial supply to arm and is continuation of axillary artery. As it descends it gradually curves laterally and passes through cubital fossa. Then divides into two branches; radial artery, ulnar artery

amniotic egg yolk sac

provides nutrients

Articular cartilage

provides smooth surface for movement

Pectoral girdle (shoulder)

provides support and articulation for humerus and anchors a variety of muscles. Embraces thorax posteriorly, laterally and anteriorly providing platform for movements of the upper limbs. Consists of clavicle and scapula (contains 3 joint)

articulating bones, function and structure of pubic symphysis joint

pubic bones, catilaginous, amphiarthrotic

major spaces of the thorax

pulmonary cavity mediastinum

Pulmonary vasculature:

pulmonary circulation bronchial circulation

Orbicularis Oris movement

pure lips

Foramen magnum changes for bipedalism

quadrupedal animals have foramen magnum more posterior, upright animals have a more central foramen magnum

Miocene, generalised hominoid locomotion

quadrupedal, long pelvis, capable of considerable arm swinging, suspensory locomotion

articulating bones and structure and function type of wrist joint

radius and proximal carpals, synovial condylar, diarthrotic

articulating bones and structure and function type of distal radioulnar joint

radius and ulnar synovial pivot, diarthrotic

articulating bones and structure and function type of proximal radioulnar joint

radius and ulnar synovial pivot, diarthrotic

Occipitofrontalis movement

raise brows

gyrus

raised ridges, protrusions

Cephalic index

ratio of the maximum width of the head multiplied by 100 and divided by its maximum length. Distributed with climate Dolichocephaly Mesocephaly Brachycephaly

Proximal convoluted tubule

reabsorbs ions, nutrients, plasma, proteins, vitamins and water. Filtrate is now called tubular fluid

Loop of Henle

reabsorption of ions and water, located in medulla of kidney

Superior Vena Cava

receives blood from all of the bodies tissues and structures above the diaphragm

Supine

recumbent, lying on the back, faceupwarde, useful to minimise effects of gravity when describing organ location

haemoglobin

red pigment found in red blood cells. When combined with oxygen gives a bright red colour resulting in a reddish tinge of the skin

Obligate bipedalism

refers to hominins where bipedalism is the only type of terrestrial locomotion, and other forms of locomotion on the ground are possible

Pons

regulates breathing

kidney function

regulation of blood volume (direct) and pressure (indirect)- control volume of interstitial fluid Regulation of erythrocyte production via erythropoietin - during flirtation detect oxygen levels in blood, if oxygen is low they secrete erythropoietin hormones to increase RBC production in bone marrow Regulation of the blood's inorganic ion balance - sodium, potassium, phosphate ions Acid-base balance through changes in the rates of hydrogen ion and ammonium secretion

Nasal morphology in modern humans

relation to climate Europeans / Northern climates = narrow nose and long nasal cavity African / equatorial climate = large nose, small nasal cavity Inhalation of air, narrow nose helps to warm and humidify the air so it is critical in cold environments Whereas in hot environment you need a large nose for ventilation

Kleiber line

relationship between metabolic rate and body mass, metabolic rate scales at ~3/4 power to an animals mass

phylogenic tree branch

represents evolutionary lineage

Angle class 1 malocclusion

represents the normal state where this cusp fits into the buccal groove of the lower molar

Gynaecology and andrology

reproductive system

Functions of skin

resistance to trauma and infection Barrier to ultraviolet light Thermoregulation Sensation Nutrition Immune defense

Pulmonology

respiratory system

Neoteny

retention of juvenile traits in adults : developmental rate of one tissue/organ is slower Humans show evidence of neoteny ( e.g, little body hair, small jaws, lengthened period of youth ; growth and development of the skull) Suggested driver of human evolution - extended neuronal plasticity ? Gene transcriptional neoteny occurs in frontal cortex of brain (embryonic expressed genes still expressed longer at postnatal stages in human vs chimp)

Veins

return blood to the heart (mostly carry deoxygenated blood)

Caudal shift

rib 12 is large and a small lumbar rib is present. First sacral segment is partially separated from the rest of the sacrum (lumbarisation)

Internal carotid artery

right and left, supplies blood to the brain, towards brain. Divides into anterior cerebral artery, middle cerebral artery and posterior cerebral artery

Vertebral artery

right and left, towards brain.

The Circle of Willis

ring-like arterial structure located at the base of the brain that supplies blood to the brain

Gall bladder

sac inferior and posterior to the right lobule of the liver concentrates Bile produced by the liver and stores it until it is needed for digestion (40-60 ml)

articulating bones, function and structure of sacroiliac joint

sacrum and coxal bone, synovial plane in children and increasingly fibrous in adults, diarthrotic

articulating bones and structure and function type of glenohumeral joint

scapula and humerus, synovial bal and socket, diarthrotic

Spinal cord

second structure of the CNS. It is continuous with the medulla oblongata (brain) - foramen magnum. to the level of the first or second lumbar vertebrae (L1-L2) - cauda equina. cylindrical structure of nervous tissue composed of: - External white matter - Internal gray matter Spinal cord four regions:- Cervical = C- Thoracic = T- Lumbar = L- Sacral = S

Distal convoluted tubule

secretes ions into the tubular fluid and reabsorbs water

Trapezius m.

secures the scapula and thus the shoulder girdle and can move the scapula and clavicle backwards tidally towards he vertebral column

Varicosis

seen in people who walk or stand for extended period of time, defined blood vessels on legs

nuclei

segregation of cell body (grey matter) in the white matter in CNS

ganglia

segregation of cell body (grey matter) in the white matter in PNS

Male reproductive accessory glands

seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbouethral (Cowper's) gland, urethra

Special senses

senses with an organ dedicated for that purpose Smell (olfaction) Hearing (audition) Touch (somatosensory) Sight (vision) Tast (gustation)

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

sensory neurons, ganglia

Intermuscular septa

separates muscle compartments

Interventricular septa (Interventricular sulcus)

separates the left and right ventricle, contains a lot of fat and blood vessels

Interatrial septa

seperate the atria

Allometry

shape / proportions change with change in size

cranial shift

shift in cranial borders towards the skull, cervical rib articulates with C7 and rib 12 is small, L5 is partially included into the sacrum (sacralisation)

Facultative skin colour (tanning)

short term response against the deleterious effects of UV exposure, but it does not significantly increase sun protection factor

Membranous urethra

shortest portion (<1cm) from inferior prostate gland through urogenital diaphragm

Lower premolars

show comparatively high disparity in buccal and lingual size, with the buccal cusp dominating the lingual cusp in height and area. They can be also three-cusped. Lower premolar crowns have comparatively weak median grooves, and are more circular in occlusal outline. Finally, lower premolars have normally a single conical root, of round section.

Dental caries

shows a shift in diet, teeth that were ideal for a diet can become damaged when diet changes

Tunica intima

simple squamous epithelium forming smooth surface of lumen

Stratum basale

single layer of cells connects to dermis, divide through mitosis to produce new cells, new keratinocytes and melanocytes and Merkel cells connecting to nerve terminals

Spinous and transverse processes

site of muscle attachment, may articulate with ribs

Distal muscle end

site where the movable end of the muscle attaches to another structure

Ureter constriction

sites where kidney stones can get lodged obstructing urine flow Uteropelvic junction Pelvic inlet Entrance to bladder

Cremaster muscle

skeletal muscle raises testes, during sex, or under fear stimulus innervation from the genitofemoral nerve

Osteology

skeletal system

Cutaneous nerves of lower limb

skin is innervated by cutaneous branches derived from lumbar and brachial plexuses. All nerves of lumbar plexus provide sensory innervation to the inguinal region and the anterior thigh. While the lateral aspect of leg and posterior aspect of thigh, leg and foot are supplied by branches of the sacral plexus The gluteal region is innervated by not lumbar and spinal sacral nerves.

what composes the craniofacial skeleton

skull without the manidble

slow oxidative (slow-twitch, type 1 muscle fibres) skeletal muscle fibres

slow to contract (~0.03 seconds)Cross-sectional diameter is small (not many myofibrils per muscle fibre) Highly resistant to fatigue Deep red colour - High myoglobin content (pigment) - Highly vascularised High mitochondrial density Produce ATP via aerobic respiration utilising O2 & carbohydrates (glucose)

kidneys

small bilateral organs to the inferior vena cava, vertebral column and aorta Right one is lower than left kidney due to location of liver Right kidney is anterior to 12th rib, Left kidney is anterior to 11 and 12th rib Retroperinetal organs Right kidney relates with root of transverse mesocolon Left kidney relates with the dorsal mesentery and traverse mesocolon

Miocene, generalised hominoid brain

small compared to hominins, large compared to other primates, fair degree of encephalisation

Modern Homo sapiens dentition

small incisors; canines further reduced, molar enamel caps thick

Bursae

small pockets filled with synovial fluid that cushion adjacent structures and reduce friction

Fungiform

small, found on dorsum of tongue Some gustatory receptors

Lower incisors

smaller than upper incisors. Their crowns are more chisel-shaped, and they are broader than long, and are less asymmetrical than upper. Their lower roots are compressed mesio-distally

Filiform

smallest, cone-shaped projectionsNo gustatory receptors

Piloerector muscle

smooth muscle erects hair follicles, in other animals this is used to appear larger when threatened

Phase II: Early homo

some scholars believe that H. habilis and H. rudolfensis are the same species but different gender Also an increase in body size

Realignment of the big toe bipedal evolution

some species have long curved toes and divergent hallux for grasping, modern humans are adapted to walking not climbing so the foot is more flat and straight

Mediastinum cavity

space between the sternum (ventral), the vertebral column (dorsal) the left and right lungs (lateral) and the diaphragm (caudal): heart, great vessels, aorta, esophagus, trachea

Melanocytes

specialised cells responsible for the production of melanin, the primary pigment responsible for skin colour

Neural tube

specialised ectoderm on dorsal embryo surface

Proximal stomach (reservoir)

specialised for tonic contractionsFunctions to maintain constant pressure on contents, which vary in volume and solidityRelaxation: receptive, adaptive, feedback when empty

Enamel

specialised hard tissue that covers the tooth crown. Strongest tissue in the body. composed of fibre-like mineral crystals and small non-mineral fraction of water and protein that holds the mineral fibres together Composed of mineral crystals and a small percentage of organic material Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 Hydroxyapatite

Fast sperm swimming speed correspond to:

species with high rate of mating

Plastinated cadaveric

specimens are permanently preserved in resin. Often these are sections of specimen

Erectile tissue

spongy masses of tissue that contain large amounts of potential vascular space for blood engorgement

Scalene muscles

stabilise the first ribs

two distinct phases of human walking cycle

stance phase swing phase

Anatomical position

standardised specific body position, necessary in providing consistent descriptions of structure in the human body. Upright, feet parallel, heals level and forward, arms at sides with palms forwards and thumbs out

Neurogenesis timing

starts week 3, continues throughout development

Unpaired organs of GI tract

stomach, small intestine, pancreas, liver

Modern Homo sapiens tool making behaviour

stone tools found after 2.5mya, trend of cultural dependency in later hominins

Internal urethral sphincter

stops passage of urine and sperm through male urethra

Rectum

stores feces prior to defecationRetroperitoneal

Upper canines

stouter and broader than lower.

Neonatal line

stressful event of birth is recorded in teeth, can count growth lines from this line to estimate life, quite precise Lines can show periods of stress during life Shows if a baby died during pregnancy, if there are additional growth lines it shows how long after birth baby died

Dermis

strong flexible connective tissue beneath the epidermis

Root of the lung

structures that go into and out of the lung at the hilum.

Anatomy dissection

studies the structure, position and interrelation of it's various parts

where does the ethmoid sinus drain into?

superior and middle meatus

Pharynx constrictor muscles:

superior constrictor Middle constrictor - attaches to hyoid bone Inferior constrictor - wrap around cartilaginous structures of the larynxthyropharyngeuscricopharyngeal

Deep layer posterior forearm consists of five muscles:

supinator m. APL EPL

Facial artery

supples all muscle and tissues of face via branches

Left coronary artery (LCA)

supplies LA & LV and branches into LAD; LCX; Left marginal

Right coronary artery (RCA)

supplies RV & RA. Branches (atrial branch); right marginal; posterior descending or interventricular artery

Superior thyroid artery

supplies area around thyroid gland

Auricular artery

supplies areas around ear

External carotid artery

supplies external features and structures

Lingual artery

supplies floor of mouth tongue

Inferior mesenteric artery

supplies left side of mesenterium, descending and sigmoid colon, upper parts of rectum

Maxillary artery

supplies maxilla

Occipital artery

supplies parietal and occipital area

Superior mesenteric artery

supplies right side of mesenterium, ascending and transverse colon, small intestine, parts of pancreas and duodenum

Capillaries

supply body cells with nutrients and oxygen and take waste products away

Arches of the foot

support the foot and absorb the shock during walking, running and jumping. Maintained by the shape of tarsal and metatarsal bones, ligaments, tendons and plantar fascia Medial longitudinal arch Lateral longitudinal arch Transverse arch

Ligamentum nuchae

supraspinous ligament that extends from C7 to the base of the skull

skeletal muscle endomysium

surrounds the individual skeletal muscle cells (muscle fibers)

Hair bulb

swelling at the base of the hair follicle that originates in dermis or hypodermis, connects to blood capillaries

function joints

synarthrosis amphiarthrosis diathrosis (synovial joint)

Pulmonary trunk

takes blood from heart to the lungs for oxygenation

articulating bones, function and structure of tarsometatarsal joint

tarsals and metatarsals, synovial plane, diarthrotic

In the fifth week what structures does the nervous system develop in order from cranial to caudal?

telencephalon diencephalon mesencephalon metencephalon myelencephalon spinal cord

Dartos muscle

temperature regulation, smooth muscle that produces the wrinkled surface of the testis (and labia majora in females) innervation from postganglionic sympathetic nerve fibers arriving via the ilioinguinal nerve and the posterior scrotal nerve

Superficial temporal artery

temporal area and superior hear

isotonic contraction

tension is produced in the muscle while there is a change in muscle length. It is a dynamic contraction because the joint will move

term for tendinous

tentinosus

Amniotes

terrestrial adaptions embryonic egg

what does the diencephalon primarily form

thalamus

Brachial Plexus topography Supra clavicular zone

the 5 roots of brachial plexus and subclavian artery pass through the space for the anterior and middle skull and muscle to enter the base of neck roots of brachial plexus converge and unite passing through the cervical axillary canal between anterior clavicle and posterior scapula and medially by the first rib When it reaches the axila the brachial plexus divides in to three cords

elasticity of skeletal muscles

the ability of a muscle to rebound toward its original length after contraction

extensibility of skeletal muscles

the ability to continue to contract over a range of resting lengths

excitability of skeletal muscles

the ability to respond to stimulation

contractibility of skeletal muscles

the ability to shorten actively and exert pull or tension that can be harnessed by connective tissue

Coronary sinus

the biggest cardiac vein, collects blood from all cardiac veins

Anencephaly

the cephalic part of neural tube fails to close, leading to absence of a major portion of the brain (babies can be born, but are deaf, blind, unconscious)

Incisal (teeth)

the cutting edge of incisors and canines

muscle belly

the fleshy part, contractile portion, and highly vascularised

Endocast

the internal cast of the cranial vault that reflects the external brain features impressed on the cranial bone

Myocardium

the largest layer, cardiac muscle responsible for pumping action of heart, site of heart attacks

Liver

the largest visceral organ (gland) (1.5-2kg) Sits underneath the diaphragm on the right side Interperitoneal Covered by connective tissue capsule and visceral peritoneum (NOT the bare area)

Biscuspid valves

the left atrioventricular valve

Left ventricle

the left ventricular wall is thicker (~13m) than the right ventricle (~3mm) because it must pump blood further into the aorta and then the rest of the body so needs 6-4 times more pressure

eccentric contraction

the muscle lengthens while producing tension

concentric contraction

the muscle shortens while producing tension

Tonic contractions (muscle tone)

the muscles of a conscious individual are almost always slightly contracted. Does not produce movement or active resistance but assists stability of joints and maintenance of posture

Skin colour intensity:

the number of melanosomes in the keratinocytes and melanocytes and their degree of dispersion The rate of melanin production (melanogenesis) Degree of melanisation of melanosomes The rate of transport and type of incorporation of melanosomes into keratinocytes Degradation of melanosomes within keratinocytes A persons chronological age - melanin reduces with age

Tricuspid valves

the right atrioventricular valve, aortic semilunar valve and pulmonary semilunar valve

Nucleus pulposus

the soft, elastic gelatinous (primarily composed of water) inner sphere of the intervertebral disc. Enables spine to absorb compressive stresses (shock absorber)

Distal (teeth)

the surface of all teeth that faces along the dental arcade away from the median sagittal plane

Mesial (teeth)

the surface of all teeth that faces along the dental arcade towards the median sagittal plane

Occlusal (teeth)

the surface of all teeth that parallels the plane in which upper and lower dentition meet

Lingual (teeth)

the surface of all the teeth that faces the tongue

Labial (teeth)

the surface of incisors and canines facing the lips

Apical (teeth)

the surfaces of a tooth that faces towards the apex of the roots

Buccal (teeth)

the surfaces of canines, premolars and molars facing the cheeks

liver anatomy

there are 8 functional segments each with own vascular inflow outflow and biliary drainage Veins drain at borders of segments (like lungs) Liver segments are surgical units (like lungs)

innervation of Muscles of posterior thigh compartment

these muscles are all innervated by the tibial division of the sciatic nerve, with exception of short head of biceps femoris m., which is innervated by the common fibular division of the sciatic nerve

action of Muscles of leg posterior compartment superficial

they plantar flex the ankle. Exception is the gastrocnemius m., which also flexes the leg at the knee joint

Primary curves

thoracic and sacral curvatures, appear during fatal development and form a C-shape curve

Meninges

three layers of protective tissue that surround the CNS (IN ORDER FROM OUTSIDE TO INSIDE): dura mater arachnoid mater pia mater

articulating bones, function and structure of inferior tibiofibular joint

tibia and fibula (distally), fibrous, synarthrotic

articulating bones, function and structure of superior tibiofibular joint

tibia and fibula (proximally), synovial plane, diarthrotic

articulating bones, function and structure of ankle joint

tibia and fibula with talus, synovial hinge, diarthrotic

Laetoli footprints

toe-off, adducted hallux, strong heel-strike, longitudinal arch

Age estimation using teeth

tooth eruption of permanent molar - required of biological and forensic anthropology dental development provides the best evidence for age at death in children Dental maturation can vary among human populations, and it is affected by socioeconomic environment

Occipital

towards back of head

Inferior

towards feet

rostral

towards front of head

Superior

towards head

Medial

towards midline of body

Optic nerve (II)

transfers visual information from the retina to the vision centres of the brain via electrical impulses. at optic chiasma, optic nerve becomes optic tract, important for splitting nerves of fields of view Sensory nerve

Vertebrae body

transfers weight

Plicae

transverse folds of the intestinal lining, increase intestinal surface area 3-fold

femoral nerve course

travels inferiorly through the psoas major muscle to enter femoral triangle. Passes underneath the inguinal ligament and divides into several branches to the anterior thigh muscle. The motor branches supply muscles of anterior compartment of thigh including hip flexors and knee extensors. Terminal cutaneous branch of femoral nerve the saphenous nerve, passes through adductor canal to continue antero-inferiorly

Femoral triangle

triangular network bounded superiorly by the inguinal ligament, medially by the lateral border of the adductor longus m., and laterally by the sartorius m.

Hominin and their defining characteristics

tribe of hominini, includes all goat apes and humans Dental features Bipedal locomotion Large brain size Tool making behaviour

Valve of pulmonary trunk

tricuspids, prevents back flow from the pulmonary trunk into the right ventricle

Bony landmarks: Attachments:

tronchanter line / ridge

Supination

twists palm from facing back to front, radius and ulna parallel

Pronation

twists palm from facing front to facing back, radius rotates over ulna

Eversion

twists the sole of the foot away from midline

Inversion

twists the sole of the foot towards midline

bones of pelvic girdle

two hip bones and sacrum

Iliopsoas muscle

two muscles, the iliacus and psoas, that arise from the iliac fossa and lumbar vertebrae respectively. It is the most important flexor of the hip

Habitual bipedalism

type of bipedalism assumed on a regular basis

Facultative bipedalism

type of bipedalism assumed on a temporal basis in order to perform a particular function

Chondrichthyes

type of gnathostomes, cartilaginous fishes (sharks, rays, skates, chimeras, ratfish) skeleton predominately composed of cartilage Calcium may be present Loss of ossified bone is derived condition Development of paired appendages (fins)

Paedomorphosis

type of neoteny compared to chimps, reproductive animal that exhibits a more juvenile phenotype relative to the ancestral species

articulating bones and structure and function type of elbow joint

ulna (and radius) with humerus, synovial hinge, diarthrotic

Kidney parasympathetic innervation:

unclear role preganglionic from vagus nerve Synapse in kidney (intrinsic ganglia)

Miocene, generalised hominoid tool making behaviour

unknown, no stone tools, probably had capabilities similar to chimpanzees

What percentage of human spermatozoa show abnormal morphology

up to 10%

maxilla

upper jaw

Urology

urinary system

deep venous system

usually occurs as paired accompanying veins that travel with and bear same name as major arteries of limb

sulcus

valleys, depressions

Evolution of human skin colour:

variations in skin colour can be explained by adaption to the environment through natural selection Natural selection has favoured dark pigmentation at the equatorial latitudes where UV radiation is higher This clinal distribution (a gradual phenotypic change that follows a geographical pattern) is found in endotherm animals and is called Gloger's rule (dark pigments increase in animals living in warm and humid habitats)

Irregular bones

various complex shapes with short, flat, notched or ridged surfaces

which lumen is larger arteries or veins

veins

which has valves, arteries or veins

veins in extremities

which has thinner walls arteries or veins

veins, hence collapse easier

True ribs (ribs 1-7)

vertebrostenal ribs Connected to the sternum by costal cartilages

Coccyx

vestigial tail, highly variable in shape, 3-5 variable fused segments. Lack pedicles, laminae and spinous processes. Anchors pelvic muscles and ligaments

occipital lobe

vision (colour, light, movement)

Thermoregulatory hypothesis

walking bipedal helped early hominins to conserve energy and protected them from overheating

Langerhans cells

wandering phagocytic cells that are important in the body's immune system

amniotic egg allantois

waste storage and gas exchange

when does organogenesis begin

week 3-4

Shunt muscle

when a muscles pull is exerted along a line parallel to the axis of bones to which it is attached, it acts to maintain contact between articular surfaces

The swing phase of modern human walking phase

when it is off the ground

Diagonal couple gait

when one limb moves forward while the other three grasp for support

The stance phase of modern human walking phase

when the leg is on the ground

Sperm counts are high in species that:

where females copulate with multiple males

Mesocephaly

width of head measured between 75% and 80% of its length

Orbicularis Oculi movement

wink

Visceral peritoneum

wrapped around the organs within the intraperitoneal space

Spongy urethra

~15cm in erectile tissue in the penis called corpus spngiosum extends to the external urethral orifice

Prostatic urethra

~3cm long Extends through prostate glands where multiple small prostatic ducts enter it

Macula:

~6 million cones concentrated No rods