Botany ch Questions (EXAM 1*)

What is acid-free paper? Why is it important? What is happening to books and magazines that were printed on paper that contained acid?

Acid free paper :which involves finding another method to create paper without the sulfite method since paper deteriorates over the course of years. Many of the books that were made this way are destroyed. It is important to keep information and to create another breed of plant that can provide less liginig to have less pollution . (page 77)

Plastids can grow and develop into many different types of structure. What is the name for the plastids that do each the following:

a) carry out photosynthesis - Chloroplast b) synthesize lipids and other material- leucoplasts c)store starch -amyloplasts d) contain abundant colored lipids - chromoplast e) occur when tissues are grown without light- Etioplasts (page 101-103) figure 4-7

What chemicals do clams use to make strong shells? What do we use for our bones?Do plants use either of these chemicals in the construction of strong cell walls?What problem would plants have if they use either the shell material or bone material?

Calcium carbonate (Page 99)

Cell membranes are described as being fluid mosaics. What does that mean? Are all membranes components free to diffuse laterally anywhere within the membrane?

Cell membranes are described as fluid mosaics since some proteins are bound to their neighbors (adjacent proteins), membranes are heterogeneous and patchy , and differentiation does take place. Membranes are not able to diffuse laterally anywhere as this would cause a lack of differentiation = homogeneous Page 92 & 94

Figure 4-1is a light micrograph of a leaf cell, and it is typically what you might see if you were to examine a moss leaf. What two cell structures can you see?

Cell wall and chloroplast (page 89)

Which organelle functions as storage of both nutrients reserves and waste products? What is the name of it's membrane?

Central vacuole- Are often appear to be empty because they store mostly water and salts that cannot be preserved for microscopy. however they sometimes contain visible crystals, starch, protein bodies and various types of granules or fibrous materials in addition to waters and salts The membrane is called tonoplast (page 98)

What are cereal grains? What plant family are they in? Give six examples.

Cereal grains: are the small fruits of grasses,each with one seed Examples: wheat, rice , corn, oats, rye, barely and more. The family of plants : Poaceae (page 53)

Which organelle carries out cell respiration? Each of these organelles has two membranes - a liquid portion and folded, sheetlike membrane structures. What are the names of these four components?

Mitochondria is the organelle that carries out cellular respiration. Cristae- mitochondrial membrane forming large sheets or tubes used to provide room for large number of enzymes Matrix- Reactions that do not involve highly reactive intermediates take place here in the liquid between cristae (page 101)

Which of the organelles in Question 21 are composed primarily of membranes? What are some of the ways that the membrane participates in the metabolic activities of those organelles?

Mitochondria- creates ATP to be spreaded out to the plant to provide needed energy for function (transfer) Chloroplast- collect and gather energy- gather light and transfer it to chemical energy (transfer) Lysosomes- break down unneeded cell part and recycle them for other purpose( take in cell parts) Chromoplast- allow to provide pigment ( allow pigment to show through)

23) Plants are part of Reality . The study of plants attempts to create a Model of that and build a vocabulary to exchange Ideas about reality. Can our model ever be incorrect? Can reality be incorrect? If our model- our hypothesis and theories - does not predict accurately, which is the wrong reality of the model?

Models can be incorrect due to forming them based on unknown worlds. Having study based on reality can be incorrect and correct due to viewing it through our form of scientific perspective (what is currently happening in front of us *correct* ). If the model is not predicting accurately it would be the model's fault. (page 15)

Morphine is an analgesic.what does that mean? Why is it's use in hospitals limited?

Morphine is analgesic,which means it blocks the pain, and it is effective against severe pain caused by deep incisions, broken bones, surgery and other trauma. Morphine is limited at hospitals since it is a addictive substance (page 71)

The first concept used to understand plants is that plants metabolism is based on the principle of Chemistry and Physics. If this is true,do you think that praying for good harvests or rain is effective?

NO, praying for harvest and rain are not effective since there has been no studies suggesting that this act consistently happens every time someone prays. Also there are climate changes that explain the miracles. (page 10)

22) It is important to distinguish between plants and the study of plants - that is, the reality of the plant world and the model of it presented in this text and in lecture. Do we already know everything there is to be known about plants? Have we discovered every plant species that exists? Are all of our hypotheses about plants correct?

No, there are still more discoveries to be known about plants .Haven't found completely all existing plants but currently established that there are 297,000 species of living plants . Not all hypotheses are correct about plants because scientist do not know everything about all organisms, our knowledge is an incomplete reflection of reality only at lease at few are wrong (page 15)

Plants and animals usually battle each other.Describe why and how this occurs. Once animal- pollinated flowers evolved, a new type of plant - animal interaction was possible, describe it. How is it possible for a mutation in a plant to be beneficial for both the plant and for an animal?

Plants and animals battle each other once an animal ingest a plant. The plant is hoping that it's seed is not digested to the point where all the nutrients are broken down. Leading seeds to have spikes and hard shells. Although if the animal begins gaining mutation to digest due to losing nutrients that plant will be unable to reproduce/ spread. The animal pollination is very beneficial for both participants ( plants and animals). The animals are able to collect nectar and food. The plant allows it to spread its seed through the animals as they interact with many plants allowing cross pollination and bringing in new advancements. Mutation within a plant and animal is super beneficial as they help each other out by gaining food or spreading seed. It's a win to win situation. (page 46 & 47)

19) Looking at figure 1-12. What is the fifth concept used for understanding plants? We do not know for certain what the environment of this deer is, but would you guess that the deer is well adapted or poorly adapted? Is it likely to survive long enough to pass it's genes for this particular skin pattern? Now imagine that the deer's environment changes. All hunting is outlawed. There are not even poachers - no hunters at all trying to kill deers. In this environment , does this skin pattern matter anymore? Is the deer still poorly adapted?

Plants must survive in their own environment The deer would be considered poorly adapted since it's pattern is very vibrant and predators could easily spot them out. Causing it to die out faster not spreading genes to offspring due to death. If the environment changes and no hunters attacking the deer skin pattern would no longer matter and would be considered adaptive - since no predators. (page 13)

Your present concept of plants is quite accurate. Most have roots, stem, leaves and flowers. Can you name two plants that have cones rather than flowers? Can you name a plant that appears to not have leaves?

Plants with cones: Coniferers: Pines, spruce, and fir have cones rather than flowers = a from of exception of what plants should have (flowers, stems, roots, green leaves) Plants that have no leaves: Involve cacti and succulents (Page 5)

What are the three methods for analyzing nature? Name some advantages and disadvantages of each?

Religious: the action of Gods can not be studied: They are either hidden or capricious, changing day to day and altering natural phenomena. Much knowledge of the world come from deity Speculative philosophy: Analyzed the world based on thinking about it logically. The concept of atoms was found using this method. From the observation that all objects could be cut or broken into two.so some size must be reached to which further subdivision is not possible (atoms). Did not create an experiment to prove that statement. A problem with this method is that often several conclusions are equally plausible logically. ONLY EXPERIMENTATION = TRUE Scientific Method: having several fundamental tenets: Source of information. All accepted information can be derived only from carefully documented and controlled observations or experiments. (all observations must be verified including those with high titles) Phenomenon that can be studied. Only tangible phenomena and objects are studied. Consistency and universality. Physical forces that control the world are constant through time and are the same everywhere. Water is always composed of hydrogen and oxygen. Gravity is the same now as it's been in the past. Experiments done at the same location and time should have similar results. This allows us to plan future experiments and make predictions on what the outcome could be. Mistakes in experiment can be caused by small factors compared to the having fundamental laws of physics and chemistry change Bias. The fundamental bias of the scientific method is skepticism. The principal of never being certain of a conclusion, of always being willing to consider new evidence. No matter how much evidence there is for or against a theory, it does no harm to ask for more evidence. There might have been a theory drilled into your head but then new evidence counteracting that so have to be open minded about it. (pages 7-8)

Which organelle carries out protein synthesis?

Ribosomes (page 103)

Name the three vegatative organs of a plant.

Roots, stems and leaves are considered vegatative organs of a plant. (page 24)

What is the difference between RER and SER? SER is not very common in plants, but several examples are given in the text. What are they?

Rough ER -A large proportion of a cell's ribosomes are attached to ER, giving it a rough appearance Smooth ER- ER that lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis and membrane assembly. Examples: in plants only abundant in only in cells that produce large amounts of fatty acids : cutin and wax on epidermal cells, oils :palm oil, coconut oil, and safflower oil Fragrances of many flowers (page 104 & 105)

Do any concepts exist for which scientific method is inappropriate? Some people suffer terribly from certain incurable diseases. Can scientific methods be used to develop drugs that could end a person's life? Can scientific methods be used to decide whether it is right or wrong actually exist? Can you prove it with scientific method? Are right and wrong concepts that can be measured, weighted, dissected? Do they have a chemical composition?

Scientific method is inappropriate when it comes to ethics and morality. As they have no chemical composition, no mass, no electromagnetic spectrum - they are not tangible hence can not be studied. Yes, there are drugs that can be developed to end someone's life . The scientists that created the drug can describe the metabolic effects that will happen to the person who ingests it but can't make a suggestion that it's the right thing to do. Scientific method can not decide if something is right or wrong as it cannot be measured. (page 9)

The fundamental bias in scientific method is Skepticism. Describe the concept.

Skepticism requires that if new, contrary evidence is presented we must be willing to change our mind. (page 8)

What is the active ingredient in hot peppers? Describe how the pungency of hot peppers is measured?

The active ingredient in hot peppers is capsaicin. Provides the pungency of the "hotness" of hot peppers. The pungency is measured by the Scoville scale. Where the capsaicin is extracted with alcohol and then a small amount is extracted is added to a large amount of water. Several people are asked to taste the water to see if they detect the capsaicin. If not more is added to the water. Once it has been detected then that dilution ratio is the "heat" of the pepper in Scoville heat units. (page 65)

What are the most abundant components of a plant cell wall? How do the components interact, and how are they arranged with respect to each other? What are the symplast and the apoplast in plants?

The cell wall contains a considerable amount of the polysaccharides cellulose. Adjacent to parallel cellulose molecules crystalize into an extremely strong microfibril 10 to 25 nm wide. - wounded around cell (completely covering plasma membrane) Each cellulose polymer grows only at one end, where a complex of enzymes add new glucose residues, one molecule at a time. The enzymes are intrinsic proteins of the plasma membrane and as they add new sugars to the chain, the enzymes float forward in the membrane( the chain is too heavy to push backwards). New cellulose molecules can be added only to the inner side of the wall, adjacent to plasma membrane Cellulose microfibrils are bound together by polysaccharides called hemicellulose, which are produced in dictyosomes and brought to the walls by dictyosome vesicles. Hemicelluloses are deposited between the cellulose microfibrils and bind to cellulose with hydrogen bonds , producing a solid structure that resembles reinforced concrete. (Page 112)

Evolution by natural selection causes organisms to become more adapted to their environment. Is the environment uniform across all of Earth? Does the environment change with time? Considering this, do you think that there is only one single optimum way for a plant to be adapted? If not, what is the alternative?

The environment is not the same across Earth there are different climates happening at each location and with time it is constantly changing. There is also no single optimum way for a plant to adapt. The alternatives may include keeping the same structure where it's more simple or anything that fits a specific plant's needs. (Various alterations) (page 42)

What are the extremely fine holes that interconnect plant cells? What is the name of the especially thin areas of walls where these holes are particularly common (Hint: figure 4-37)

The extremely fine holes that interconnect plant cell plasmodesmata Primary pit field is the specially thin area of walls where these holes are particularly common (page 114)

The division of labor among various types of cells in plants is important. Examine Table 4-2, and name the cell responsible for the following tasks

a) collecting solar energy - Green leaf cells b) Transporting water - Vascular cells c) Cell division and the production of new protoplasm - Cell of shoot/ root tip d) water retention - Epidermis e)having pigments that attract pollinators - Petal cells f) producing poisons that inhibit animals from harming the plants - Epidermal gland cells (page 90)

In Plants, each consist of a boxlike cell walls surrounding a mass

of protoplasm , which, in turn, contains its own smaller parts, the Organelles (page 89)

Bast fibers (Phloem fiber):

which is found in several plant species Corchorus,an annual in the mallow family Malvaceae, supplies us with the fiber juice jute. Jute is tough, flexible, resistant to being torn or cut. It is often woven onto course cloth = burlap. Burlap offers the advantage that it is breathable and also will rot away. It is used to store food so that it will not rot in packaging and planting (geotextiles).

In table 4-1, the size of water- conducting vessel cells in oak are 270 um diam x 225 um (60,750 um^2). Each millimeter contains 1,000 um. Approximately how many of these cells could be laid end to end (or side by side) in 1mm? 60.75 mm Do you think such a cell would be visible if it were placed in your hand?

yes , would be visible.

Are there any type of organisms that do not need to take in energy and raw materials from their environment? Discuss the source of energy for plants as opposed to animals, describe some of the raw materials that are needed by plants.

All organisms plants,fungi, animals, and all the rest must take in energy and raw materials from their environment. Animals take in both energy and raw materials as in the organic material we call food. Take in resources by devouring them. Plants do not eat. They take in resources through several separate processes. Energy is provided by sunlight and captured by photosynthesis. The plant's body is composed of organic molecules that can be traced back to carbon dioxide taken in by epidermis from the air, minerals and water used in photosynthesis absorbed by roots. (Page 31 & 34)

What is the type of cell wall present in all plant cells? What is the type present in certain cells that must be usually strong?

All plant cells have thin wall called primary cell wall The secondary cell wall must be usually strong, the protoplasm deposits it between the primary wall and plasma membrane . Much thicker than the primary cell wall and impregnated with lignin. (Page 113)

What are the alpha - tubulin and beta- tubulin? When they aggregate, what do they form? What structure is dividing cells is made with this substance (figure 4-27) Algae, Fungal,and animal cells move with structures made of this. What is the name of the structure?

Alpha- tubulin and beta-tubulin are the two types of proteins with a globular tertiary structure When the two combined they created a tubulin that further crystallized into a straight tubule with a diameter of 20 to 25 nm. (multiple microtubules) This process is reversible- when the microtubule is no longer needed then it depolymerizes back into component monomers, which diapers into the cytosol until the cell needs to assemble new microtubules (recycle) Algae, fungal , and animal cells move of structures made of this known as microtubules (page 109 &110)

How are antioxidants important? What do they protect cells from? Name several antioxidants and list several dark green leafy vegetables rich in antioxidants.

Antioxidants are important since they provide protection to cells from dangerous oxygen free radicals produced by photosynthesis also play a major role in plant growth. Antioxidants: Vitamin C, Vitamin E, carotenoids (red and yellow low pigments of flowers, fruits, carrots), Flavonoids( present in berries , and phenolic compounds (Present in coffee, tea and many leaf-based spices) Dark Green leafy vegetables:spinach, kale, collard greens, broccoli, and brussel sprouts (page 62)

Plants, animals, fungi, and protists have eukaryotic cells. What is the key feature of the eukaryotic cells?

Are more complex than prokaryotic cells. The presence of a true membrane- bounded nucleus , has many organelles. As each cell type develops, certain organelles may become modified and more less abundant, but usually none is lost completely. (Page 96)

25) This chapter closes suggesting that you keep in mind two questions as you study this book and plants themselves? What are the two questions?

Are there alternatives to this phenomenon ? What are the consequences ? (page 18)

What is an artisan wood? Which properties are especially important? These woods are usually obtained from only certain parts of the logs of certain types of trees. Describe why this is so.

Artisan wood is wood that is valued for its beauty. They often consists of ,mostly richly colored heartwood such as black, red, white,and purple Care is often taken in the way that artisan wood are cut: Tangential longitudinal section shows the texture caused by rays and fibers Radial longitudinal section shows a pattern of alternating earlywood and latewood. =Refer to wood's grain Only certain traits are picked due to markings and beauty also most of the products created by these materials are small Boxes, musical instruments,bowls,and lamps (Page 81)

17) Life on Earth began about 3.5 Billion years ago.

At first organisms were simple, like present day Bacteria . (page 13)

The concept of biosphere was touched on only briefly in this chapter, but you have many resources in this text and online to explore this concept. What are some of the geological and biological components of the biosphere? We humans are burning fossil fuels and adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, how does that affect the biosphere?

Biosphere is where living things occur. There is water, air and soil Some geological and biological components of the biosphere: The land was all combined at one point which eventually evolved into continents. (pangaea-> Laurasia & Gondwana-> continents). There was no oxygen or organisms living on earth until cyanobacteria landed on their creating photosynthetic production of oxygen. Algae and plants are to be thanked for providing the substance that allows other organisms to flourish. Also organisms tend to take in the resources the Earth provides and release their waste. Biological components: plants, animals, insects, earthworms, nematodes, arthropods, protozoa, fungi, and bacteria that live in the soil. (page 46)

Earth is constantly changing and so are all organisms as they evolve. But despite so much change, it is possible to study and understand life because several things are always constant. what are those things?

But for understanding life the process, principles, and concepts are always the same. (page 48)

What are complementary proteins? Name three pairs.

Complementary proteins: are various pairs of proteins. One has the adequate amount of that amino acid that the other lacks and vice versa. Three pairs: Bean, Corn or Squash Rice and Beans Peanut Butter and Wheat Bread (page 60)

The earliest plant species that were domesticated had several fundamental features. List these features and discuss why each was important. ( use potatoes as an example)

Crops have to be defended , so people settled in fertile areas and stopped migrating Due to lack of migration buildings and villages formed creating new communication interactions outside of family and govern themselves in larger groups Writing was eventually invented to keep track of contents in sealed jars of food, wine and beer. Mathematics was developed to (especially geometry) needed to survey crop land and build canals and irrigation projects (page 52)

Physical forces that control the world are

constant through time and are the same everywhere. (page 8)

What is the role of dictyosomes in the cells metabolism? What is their forming face? Their maturing face?

Dictyosomes- Much of the material secreted by a cell must be modified by this. They are a stack of thin vesicles held together in a flat or curved array. Cisterna ER vesicles accumulate on one side of the dictyosome and then fuse together and form a wide thin vesicle that become attached to dictyosome soon more ER vesicles gather next to this one and form a new cristae Forming face- The first cisterna becomes embedded in more deeply in the dictyosome as more vesicles accumulate on that side Maturing face- Vesicles are being released, their contents have been processed. After separation, vesicles can move to the plasma membrane and release their contents . (page 105)

20) Name three domains, and describe the types of organisms in each. Which are prokaryotes? Which are eukaryotes?

Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya Bacteria:PROKARYOTES Eukarya: Plantae, Animallia, Myceteae(fungi), and Protists ( eukaryotes that don't fit in other kingdoms) KINGDOMS EUKARYOTES Archaea:PROKARYOTES (page 13)

Describe how material is brought to the dictyosome. What happens to the material while it is in a dictyosome and , how is it released? What are some of the things that might happen to it after release?

ER vesicles accumulate on one side of the dictyosome and then fuse together and form a wide thin vesicle that become attached to dictyosome = cristerna soon more ER vesicles gather next to this one and form a new cristae Forming face- The first cisterna becomes embedded in more deeply in the dictyosome as more vesicles accumulate on that side Maturing face- Vesicles are being released, their contents have been processed. After separation, vesicles can move to the plasma membrane and release their contents . During separation the outer edge of dictyosomes form an interconnected network of curving tubes, and these may absorb the contents from the center of the dictyosomes cisterna and then detach and move away. If the vesicle is fused with plasma membrane after release, the vesicle membrane will must be made similar to the plasma If the vesicle is to be separate from all organelles and act as a storage vesicle its membrane must be made unique and incapable of fusion. Alteration of the vesicles contents involves addition of sugars to protein, forming glycoproteins Sugar containing proteins occur in - plasma membrane, cell wall, and as storage product in seeds Storage evidence is accumulating that dictyosomes also polymerize sugars into polysaccharides used in cell wall construction (page 105)

Domestication of plants began in at least four separate areas. name, the areas and the plants

Early South Americans about 11,000 years ago : Potatoes Region that stretches from southern Turkey to western Iran known as fertile crescent (9,000 years ago): wheat and lentils Southeast Asia: rice Africa: pearl millet (page 52)

Pieces of membrane frequently move from one area of a cell to another, but never as just flat patches, only as vesicles. Study figure 4-9, and then draw examples of endocytosis and exocytosis using different colors for the two sides membranes. Notice that the black side of the membrane bilayer always touches the blue part of the cell in figure 4-9. Can you come up with any type of vesicle fusion that would result in the black side of the membrane touching the green part of the cell?

Endocytosis- is to bring in material into the cell membrane Exocytosis- Involves pushing anything out of the cell - waste, debris, mucilage, proteins, and polysaccharides. The vesicle fusion that that would cause in resulting in the black side of the membrane touching the green part of the cell would include there being no difficulties merging with other vesicles and as they have to be similar in composition. (page 94)

What is engineered wood? Give several examples. Can this technique produce pieces of wood that are longer or wider than the trees used to make it? Can it be made with usual shapes ? Give examples of where engineered wood is used?

Engineering Wood: are woods produced by gluing small pieces of wood together to make a new wood type. Examples: Plywood Particleboard Laminated beams This technique can produce pieces of wood that are longer and wider than what trees can produce and be made in any shape. Used in: churches, theaters, gymnasiums,and auditoriums without needing internal pillars (laminated beams) (pages 80 & 81)

How do the reproductive organs of ferns differ from foliage leaves?

Ferns' reproductive organs are hard to distinguish from vegetative organs. Ferns use foliage leaves that produce sporangia on the undersides ( small sacks under leaves) (page 24)

The term "Fiber" has several meanings with regard to textiles. Briefly describe bast fiber,soft fiber, hard fiber, and wood fiber. Give an example for each fiber.

Fibers: refer to individual long sclerenchyma cell Fiber (textiles):whole bundles of fiber cells such as phloem fibers caps or fibrovascular bundles of monocot leaves. Bast fibers (soft fibers): occur in phloem, cortex, and bark Hard fibers: are extracted from leaves Wood fibers: derived from wood even if they are the tracheids of conifers (page 74)

Describe a food with a high glycemic index. Why are such foods harmful to our metabolism? Describe a food with low glycemic index.

Foods with a high glycemic index are those high in sugar or starch. Sugar example: fruit juice and candy Starch: white bread and potatoes They are quickly digested and permit sugar to pass through the bloodstream rapidly even faster than the body can use it. This rapid amount of sugar provides an energetic feel, but stimulates pancreas to release large amounts of insulin and later release glucagon. The two hormones insulin and glucagon make a huge impact on the body as they fluctuate causing disruption with metabolism. Those with low glycemic are those that are digested slowly. They do not disrupt changes in insulin or glucagon and are considered way healthier Example : sweet potatoes (Page 57)

Define each of these terms: freely permeable membrane, impermeable membrane, and selectively permeable membrane. During your next exam, you may sweat a solution of sodium, chloride, and water, but not proteins, sugars or nucleotides. Are the membranes of your sweat glands cells freely permeable, impermeable,or selectively permeable?

Freely permeable:Which allows everything to pass through quickly, would be rather useless for a cell Impermeable: One that does not allow ANYTHING to pass through at all Selectively permeable : certain substances cross the membrane more easily and rapidly than others The sweat pores contain a selectively permeable membrane since only certain are excreted out - water, chloride. and sodium. (Pages 94 &95)

Name two types of fungi. Why were fungi originally included in the plant kingdom? Biologists no longer consider fungi to be plants because they differ in many basic blank and blank aspect.

Fungi such as MUSHROOMS and PUFFBALLS are included in the plant kingdom because they are immobile and produce spores,which function similarly to seeds. Many biologists no longer consider fungi to be plants because they differ in any basic biochemical and genetic respects. (Page 6)

Which group of plants does the term "angiosperm" refer to? Do angiosperms have vascular tissue? Do they have seeds? In conifers, seed, develop inside cones, but in angiosperms, seeds always develop inside of Fruit.

Groups of plants that are Angiosperm: flowering plants Angiosperms have vascular tissue and more complex wood / leaves. They have animals pollinate and distribute their seeds (Pages 39 & 40)

The activity of the roots of a plant must be coordinated with the activity of the leaves. Describe how this occurs. What type of information molecule is used?

Healthy leaves produce hormones that are carried to the roots to inform it that the leaves are active and need water. The roots then grow and absorb water and nutrients to send upward to support leaves. Although one autumn comes less hormones are released and roots become small and conserve energy as leaves fall off. (page 37)

The body of an herb contains just three basic parts. What are they?

Herbs contain only three parts: leaves, roots and stems Page 146

What is the Holocene Epoch? When did it begin?

Holocene Epoch is the warm period in which we are living now (temporary cyclical war period of Ice age). This occurred after the major freezing ice age ( Pleistocene Epoch) and allowed more open land to populate and gather food as glaciers began to disappear. (page 52)

Draw a typical plant cell and include all of the organelles mentioned in the chapter. Most cells have specialized functions and increase in proportions of certain organelles.

How would you change your if the cell is involved in photosynthesis? Add Chloroplasts Is part of a yellow or orange cell? Chromoplast Secrete protein- rich digestive fluid? Lysosomes Need a great deal of ATP? mitochondria Store Starch? Amyloplasts have just grown a great amount. (own knowledge)

How long have humans used fire?

Humans have used fire since 125,000 years ago in order to keep warm, cook and protect themselves from predators. (page 52)

What is a hypothesis? A theory ? Why is it important that each be able to predict the outcome of a future experiment? How do these differ from speculation?

Hypothesis: at some point is created to account for observations. (Predictive model) Definition: must make predictions that can be tested. It must be tested in various ways. It must be consistent with further observations and experiments for the hypothesis to be true. If there are dramatic differences between experiments and observations the hypothesis is wrong. Occasionally a hypothesis rarely matches observations causing alterations or completely canceling it. Theory: If a hypothesis continues to match observations, we have greater confidence that it is correct. (predictive model) It is important to be able to predict outcomes as it allows to create an experiment that corresponds with the hypothesis and brings information from other sources to help organize and understand the concept. (Page 8)

If a hypothesis makes predictions that are not accurate and do not help explain future observations, do those inaccurate predictions prove the hypothesis is not a good model of reality? On the other hand, if the hypothesis does make accurate predictions does that accurately prove the hypothesis is correct?

If a hypothesis makes a prediction that is not accurate and does not help explain future observations : Suggests that the hypothesis is not true causing it to be cancelled completely or may just need alterations. Could be a possibility of not being a model of reality. If a hypothesis does make accurate predictions and observations follow it it is ACCURATELY CORRECT. (Page 8)

When cattle eat plant feed such as corn or hay, the cattle are Primary consumers. When we eat the animal protein, we are Secondary consumers.

In general it takes 10 kg of feed to produce 1kg of animal protein. (Page 55)

What is infusion? Name two popular infusions.

Infusion: We pouring hot water over a powder or grounded leaves (practically any sliced up substances) to extract their flavor molecules that produce the complex flavor of packet and discard the bag of substance and drink the water water Two popular infusions: tea and coffee (page 69)

What is an intercellular space? Diffusion through a gas- filled space is approximately 10,000 times faster than through liquid filled space. Living cells deep inside a bulky object such as an apple need oxygen. Do you think oxygen could diffuse to those cells fast enough if there were no intercellular space? Would you guess ( you will have to guess, as the answer is not found in the textbook) that all or most of the intercellular spaces are interconnected such that oxygen could diffuse deep into an apple without ever havIng to dissolve into protoplasm?

Intercellular space- Many cells do not abut each other tightly but instead have this between them, at least at their corners (page 115 & 116) If there was no intercellular space oxygen would not leave the cell as quickly and is essential so no disruption happens in the protoplasm.

Some of the proteins that are part of a cell membrane are actually immersed in the membrane and merely lie next to it. What are the names of each type?

Intrinsic Proteins- Proteins that are even partially immersed in the lipid bilayer Extrinsic Proteins- are located outside the membrane and merely lie next to it (page 92)

The Plasma membrane (less frequently called the Plasmalemma) is the membrane that completely covers the surface of the protoplasm.

It is (freely, impermeable, selectively permeable), and it (does, does not) contain molecular pumps. (page 96)

How do we know that ancient Egyptians used black pepper?

It was discovered that Egyptians used black pepper once a burial was dug up of Ramesses II where peppercorns were placed around the mummified body (Page 66)

Kenaf is currently being investigated as a possible new source of useful fiber. Describe the properties of kenaf that makes it seem favorable

Kenafis currently being studied to be another material used to make paper. It is naturally whiter than pine and has less lignin. Due to pine causing pollution through bleaching and delignifying pine fibers. The kenafis is suitable since it's paper manufacturing can be less damaging to the environment. Also will produce twice as much on a plot of land compared to pine plots. (page 76)

Photosynthesis is the central metabolism by which plants acquire energy, it occurs only when

Light , chlorophyll and Carbon Dioxide are present. (page 34)

24) As you read, you will deal with two types of information Observations and Interpretations. Which of these are reasonably accurate and trustworthy. The other is more difficult. Why? If the second type doesn't make any predictions about the outcome of a future observation or experiment, would there be any way to determine whether it is accurate?

Observations: are reasonably accurate and trustworthy ,we usually have to consider only whether the botanist was careful, observed correctly and without error and report truthfully. Interpretations: are more difficult, they are entirely human constructed based on observations, intuition, previous experience, calculations and exceptions. To determine if one is accurate is base on if it could make an accurate prediction about future observations or experiment (page 15 & 18)

Describe old growth forests. Do they have a high or low diversity of trees when compared to tree plantations? Which type of trees do woodpeckers prefer?

Old Growth Forests: are forests were trees were able to mature (usually those in national parks) Locations with old growth forests have a larger diversity of trees compared to plantations. As plantations will only plant a specific species that is desired for profit (usually involving one type of tree a harvest) A natural forest will have many types of trees, and of varying age.it also has some dead trees and some that are infected with insects - such trees and their insects are just they type of trees woodpeckers rely on. (Pages 79 & 80)

All biological membranes are composed of proteins and two layers of Phospholipid molecules.

One of these components occurs as a thin solution only two molecules thick. A layer only two molecules thick is a bilayer (page 91)

Name the four basic organs of a flower. Describe situations in which flowers might not need one or two of these organs.

Organs of a flower: carpel, stamen,petal, and sepal. This organization may not be easy to find in all flowers. This so since one or two of these organs are extremely underdeveloped or even absent completely in certain species For instance if a flower depends on pollinators then most likely the petals will be vibrant. But for a wind- pollinated flower vibrant petals would be a waste of resources. Also certain plants produce clusters of tiny flowers and rather than making sepal for each flower they create one large one. The organs may also be fused together in some species. (Page 28)

Each plant receives a great deal of information from its parents by means of the DNA in which two cells? Describe the types of information that plants receive from the environment. Why is it that environmental information can not be stored in DNA?

Parents provide information through sperm cells and egg cells.When combined produce life and the DNA is stored in the nucleus of each cell , as well as plastid and mitochondria which are all present in living things. When the cell needs information it then turns the DNA-> Messenger RNA-> Protein. Even smaller RNA (MicroRNA) will help inhibiting or activating genes (applying some finetuning) Environment: must be perceived then translated to where the information is needed and the plant will then respond appropriately. When a plant is merely a dormant seed it responds to the weather to see if the timing to germinate is right and if survival is high as a seedling. The environment provides sunlight, which provides energy and direction (upward and downward = where to grow leaves and roots). Provides information about the season and time of day. (page 37)

Many animals and algae have cells with flagella, but do any plants have flagella? For example, do fern cells or moss cells have flagella?

Plant cells only have flagella in ONLY sperm cells In flowering plants and conifers, no cells, not even sperm cells, ever have cilia or flagella Fern and moss do not contain flagella (pages 110 & 111)

The fifth concept used to understand plants is that plants must survive in their own Environment. Imagine a plant adapted to a desert and one adapted to a rainforest. Do you think that the leaves of one might be different from the leaves of the other? That one might have enlarged roots that can store water and the other would not need these? Would it be easier to understand a plant's anatomy and physiology, all it's biology, if we also know the type of habitat to which it is adapted ?

The leaves and roots of plants may vary based on their photosynthetic metabolism and leaf structure. Finding the species of plants biology physiology, anatomy and habitat to which have adapted to would be very beneficial to understanding its survival. (page 10)

How do microtubules act as cytoskeleton? Are there times when they are particularly abundant? What are centrioles, basal bodies, and flagella?

The microtubules are the most abundant and easily studied of the structure elements of a cell and contain many functions. Functions: They act as a "cytoskeleton" holding certain regions of the cell surface back while other parts expand. Without them cells would be just spheres, but by reinforcing specific areas cell growth and expansion are directed to weaker areas. Assemble into arrays like an antenna which either catches vesicles and guides them to specific sites or covers a region there by excluding the vesicles. Microtubules are the means of motility for organelles and whole cells. Cn move whole nuclei, mitochondria and other organelles Centrioles- is associated with formation of spindle. Is made up of 9 sets of three short microtubules, the nine triplets are held together by fine protein spokes. Centrioles are ASSUMED to be responsible for the organization and polymerization of the spindle microtubules even though plants never have centrioles. Flagella- are similar to cilia except is much longer and usually occur either singly set of two or four (Present in algae and fungal cells - especially unicellular organisms) Basal Bodies- appear to be identical to centrioles by electron microscopy. It was assumed that basal bodies organize the formation of flagellar microtubules , but recent studies have shown that as a flagellum grows, new monomers of tubulin and dynein are added to the tip , not the base where the basal body is located. The exact relation still UNKNOWN (Page 110-112)

Stone cell coconut shells are part of the division of labor in plants. What modification do they have that make it impossible for them to be dividing and growing cells (Hint: Figure 4-5)

The modification they up hold would include having the protoplasm to die after the stone cell has fully developed causing them to not grow or divide. (usually made to provide strength and protect seed) (page 91)

Have North and South America alway been connected by Central America? Once the two continents joined, plants and animals could move from one to the other, animals can walk,fly or swim, but how does a plant species move from one to the other? South America has thousands of plants adapted to the Amazon rainforest, do you think it is likely that any of those plants will be able to migrate to North America across the deserts of Mexico, Texas and Arizona?

The plant species were able to migrate as animals carried their seeds across. It may be possible for other South America plants to migrate to North America since cacti were able to pass through all the obstacles as animals carried them through. (page 45)

Examine figure 4-32 to 4-34. What types of substances occur as storage products in plant cells?

The substances that occur as storage products in plants are: Sugars that have been polymerized into starch in amyloplasts Or converted to into lipids and stored as large oil droplets in oily material like peanut oil and sunflower seeds Plants store crystals of calcium oxalate or calcium carbonate Accumulate large amount of silica , tannins or phenols Because plants don't have excretory mechanisms, numerous waste products must be stored within the cells. (page 112)

Is it easy to recognize that something is a living being rather than an inanimate object. Europa is a moon for Jupiter (see Box 1-2), and it is so far from the sun that there is not enough light for photosynthesis. The bottom of it's ocean is completely dark and icy cold. Are there locations like this on Earth that support life and that therefore let us hypothesize that life might also live on Europa?

The surface of Mars is dry, but water may exist within the soil, many bacteria on Earth live below ground, obtaining energy from chemicals in rock. Europa, a moon of Jupiter, has an ocean below the layer of prominent ice, on Earth worms, clams, and bacteria live complete, icy darkness near vents on the ocean floor, obtaining enough energy from volcanic gases to thrive, not just survive. ALL LIVING THINGS FOLLOW: 1) Metabolism involving the exchange of energy and matter within the environment 2) Nonrandom organization 3)Growth 4)A system of heredity and reproduction 5)A capacity to respond to the environment such that metabolism in not adversely affected (Page 16)

Which aspect of our teeth indicate we have evolved so that we can eat plants?

The teeth evolved in allowing humans to grind up plants to ingest their fruits, leaves, seeds and stems are molars and incisors. (page 52)

What are the two basic components of membranes? What are the three ways that material can move from one side of the membrane to the other? Which method requires the plant to use energy?

The two basic components of membrane are lipids and proteins Facilitated diffusion :Movement of changed substances is assisted by large intrinsic proteins that span the membrane and act as a hydrophilic channels through it Molecular pump: bind to the molecule on one side of the membrane, then by using energy, the protein changes shape and releases the molecule to the otherside. Active Transport: cells accumulate substances until the interior concentration of solute far exceeds the exterior concentration (page 92 & 95)

18) When organisms reproduce, some of their offsprings are poorly adapted and they do not grow and reproduce as well as the offspring that are well adapted.

This is called Natural Selection (page 13)

Which three groups of plants are referred to as bryophytes? They differ from all other plants in two main features, name the features?

Three groups of plants considered Bryophytes: Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts They have simple bodies and only live with one set of chromosomes (haploid). They have no vascular tissue and seeds.

Which vitamin is lacking from rice? Describe how genetic engineering has addressed this problem. What is the name of GMO rice, and is it now widely cultivated?

To produce white rice most of the bran is removed and vitamins are lost. Those who rely on this as their main source of grain/ source of food have a deficiency of vitamin A . This involves gaining imparied vision, compromised immune system, and many other symptoms. There has been a modification of rice with the use of genetic engineering. The golden rice was created to provide Vitamin A. The rice was created with beta-carotene the precursor of Vitamin A. As of now many disregard it due to being a GMO and even though rice does produce beta- carotene it is only found in the leaves NOT IN SEED (where rice is located at) (Page 54 & 55)

Wheat flour has an unusual protein.name the protein and describe how it is important in making bread.

Wheat differs from other cereal grains and from all other starchy food - in that it contains a significant amount of the elastic protein gluten. Gluten is a major factor in making bread since: a wheat dough is kneaded, gluten molecules are stretched into stringy strands within the dough, which trap carbon dioxide bubbles to produce as yeast respire, which causes the dough to rise before baking. = a bread way softer to eat and better to digest (Page 54)

As newspapers, printer paper,and other papers are recycled, their fibers are damaged so the new paper is not as strong as the original paper. Does this make the recycled paper useless, or is strength not crucial for some products? If so, name some products that can be made with recycled paper?

When recycling paper the fibers become weak and some of the previous fillers and dyes remain, so the resulting new paper has poorer quality. But low quality paper is used usefully for things such as egg cartons, packaging material, and building installation. (page 77)

Name the two vascular tissues found in vascular plants. What does each transport?

Xylem: transports water and minerals UPWARD from the roots to all aerial parts, especially leaves and flowers. The air around a plant absorbs most of that water but some of the water and minerals stay inside the plant and is used as it's needed. Phloem: carries sugars and various organic compounds as well as minerals and water throughout the plant DOWNWARD. For example sugar is collected from the leaves as photosynthesis happens there. So phloem carries most of that sugar out of the leaf into the stem and possible lower to the roots for nourishment and some even UPWARD. These two always occur together in a small number of vascular bundles. (Page 30)

In the scientific method all accept the following information can be derived only from documented and controlled Observations or experiments. If someone claimed to have a new treatment of a disease or a type of eye surgery, would you want some sort of documentation and proof before you let them give you drugs or operate on you?

Yes, it would be best to ask for some type of information about the procedure you might be given and it's success rate = data. (page 7)

What is the eighth concept used for studying plants? It is difficult to avoid using the phrase "in order to" when referring to plants. Change the following sentences to be more accurate.

a)Plants have leaves in order to photosynthesize -Plants have leaves that photosynthesize b)Plants have flowers in order to reproduce -Plants use flowers to reproduce c)Plant cells divide in order to make more cells -Plant cells divide to produce a larger amount of cells d)Wind- pollinated plants have their flowers located high above the ground in order to be exposed to stronger winds -Wind pollinated plants have to be located above ground to be exposed to strong winds to fertilize.

List the eight concepts that can be used to understand plants.

a)Plants metabolism is based on the principle of chemistry and physics b)Plants must have a means of storing and using information c)Plants reproduce, passing their genes and information on to their descendants d)Genes, and the information they contain, change e)Plants must survive in their own environment f)Plants are highly integrated organisms g)An individual plant is the temporary result of interaction of genes and environment h)Plants do not have purpose or decision making capacity (pages 10 &12)

The nucleus serves as an archive for the organism's genetic information , all of which is stored

as DNA inside every nucleus. (page 96)

Name five species of legumes. Which nutrient is especially abundant in legumes? Why are their root nodules important?

legumes : plants of species that produce seeds rich in protein Species of legumes: bean, peas, lentils, peanuts, chickpeas, and many others The nutrient that is abundant in legumes is Nitrogen Root nodules are important since they carry nitrogen- fixing bacteria. They have two sources of reduced nitrogen for their growth from soil and symbiotic bacteria. By having those allow them to grow in poor - nitrogen soil and even without nitrogen fertilizer and still produce seeds with more protein compared to other plants. (page 60)

How would you distinguish between plants and animals? What characteristics are important?Be careful to consider unusual plants and animals. Can all animals move? Do they all eat?

plants have the ability to prepare their food with the help of sunlight, water and air, along with the support of the green pigment known as chlorophyll which is found in all green plants. On the other hand, animals are known for their well-developed body and it's organ system like nervous, reproductive, digestive, respiratory, etc. Animals are also considered to be immensely susceptible or sensitive to any stimulus.Also plants create fruit and seeds and they can also become parasitic( feed off of other plants) and need carbon dioxideAnimals have to move one time.

In the cell wall, adjacent, parallel cellulose molecules crystallize into an extremely strong Microfibril 10 to 25 nm wide. These are bound together by

polysaccharides called hemicelluloses , which are produced in dictyosomes. (Page 112)

21) What are relictual (plesiomorphic) features? Derived (apomorphic) features? Which organisms seem to have a large percentage of relictual features- prokaryotes or eukaryotes? Algae or flowering plants? Amoebas or humans?

relictual (plesiomorphic): Features that seem relatively unchanged Derived (apomorphic): advanced features that evolved over time High% of relictual features: prokaryotes, algae and humans (pages 13 & 14)

The Scientific method only deals with

tangible phenomena and objects. (page 8)