bsc1005 cancer
Look different to surrounding cells due to large, dark nuclei
cancer cells
With no genetic control, the cells start to divide ____________ and the cells undergo more rounds of division than they normally would, making cells prone to replication errors.
uncontrollably
In order for cancer to develop, which of the following events must occur? A cell malfunctions and unregulated cell division occurs. Genetic material was copied without errors. Cell division is regulated. A cell malfunctions and apoptosis is triggered. Genetic mutation causes a cell to lose its normal genetic programming and control mechanisms.
A cell malfunctions and unregulated cell division occurs. Genetic mutation causes a cell to lose its normal genetic programming and control mechanisms.
What is the first step to determine if a patient is susceptible to a certain type of cancer?
A complete blood count that shows an elevated number of normal blood cells in the body x
Which of the following describes how physicians stage a patient diagnosed with breast cancer? A numerical staging system describes the degree to which cancer has spread. Staging helps describe where cancer has spread and whether it is affecting other parts of the body. The lower the cancer stage of breast cancer, the more severe the form of cancer. Staging helps describe where a cancer is located.
A numerical staging system describes the degree to which cancer has spread. Staging helps describe where cancer has spread and whether it is affecting other parts of the body. Staging helps describe where a cancer is located.
________________ may disrupt the calcium homeostasis by causing bone to break down, releasing excess calcium into the blood, and blood calcium levels to _____________ .
Bone cancer rise
Select all of the following examples of how cancer can disrupt organ function. Brain cancer may place pressure on areas of the brain that regulate bodily functions and disrupt their regulation. With lung cancer, the tumor increases the number of airways and increases the amount of oxygen available to the body. Cancer in the bone marrow may prevent white blood cells from forming, reducing the ability of the immune system, and leaving the body open to infection. Blood is re-routed and nutrients are directed to the tumors in the breast, leaving fewer resources for normal cells.
Brain cancer may place pressure on areas of the brain that regulate bodily functions and disrupt their regulation. Cancer in the bone marrow may prevent white blood cells from forming, reducing the ability of the immune system, and leaving the body open to infection. Blood is re-routed and nutrients are directed to the tumors in the breast, leaving fewer resources for normal cells.
The immune system acts to defend and protect the body. Which of the following reasons would explain why cancer cells are able to escape the immune system?
Cancer cells are not recognized as non-self cells and can continue to divide without attracting the attention of the immune system.
Which of the following are ways to differentiate between cancer cells and normal cells? Cancer cells are produced to replace worn out cells. Cancer cells change the order of the cell cycle stages. Cancer cells continue to divide even when they come into contact with other cells. Cancer cells are not regulated because they have lost the ability to control cell division. Cancer cells lack the ability to form spindle fibers.
Cancer cells continue to divide even when they come into contact with other cells. Cancer cells are not regulated because they have lost the ability to control cell division.
______________ carry nutrients and oxygen to cells and also remove waste materials
Capillaries
Which of the following describes what happens during interphase? Sister chromatids separate Cell performs all of its normal functions DNA duplication occurs Chromatin becomes tightly coiled and visible Mitotic spindle forms Preparation for the next round of cell division
Cell performs all of its normal functions DNA duplication occurs Preparation for the next round of cell division
Which of the following is/are true about cancer cells? Disregard their genetic programming Receive the correct signals for cell growth Lose their specialization Divide uncontrollably Undergo programmed cell death if there is a mutation
Disregard their genetic programming Lose their specialization Divide uncontrollably
________________ uses a machine to aim beams of energy to specific parts of the body. The most commonly used type of treatment, radiation types vary from X-rays to higher energy _______________ .
External radiation therapy gamma rays
Regulated by growth factors, this checkpoint determines if the cell is ready to replicate the DNA ________________
G1 checkpoint
After the cell has undergone synthesis, the cell checks to make sure the DNA has been replicated without errors ________________
G2 checkpoint
Used in diagnosing cancer after an initial blood test suggests the presence of cancer in the body
Imaging scans
_____________ is a treatment in which a source of radiation is put inside the body. Also known as _____________ , the treatment involves a ______________ that emits radioactive materials near the tumor to damage the DNA of the cancer cells.
Internal radiation therapy brachytherapy seed
An X-ray picture of the breast to look for early signs of breast cancer
Mammogram
The mitotic spindle aligns the replicated chromosomes at the center of the cell.
Metaphase
__________ aid the immune system in mounting attacks against cancer cells by targeting antigens only found on the surface of cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies
A cell is the smallest unit of biological organization that has all of the characteristics of life. Which of the following are considered characteristics of life? Passes on genetic information to offspring Acquires materials and energy to manufacture cellular components Unresponsive to changes in the internal and external environment Adapts to changes in its environment Internal environment is unregulated and unstable
Passes on genetic information to offspring Acquires materials and energy to manufacture cellular components Adapts to changes in its environment
Which of the following correctly describes the process of angiogenesis? Promotes the growth of local capillaries to grow toward the tumor Causes normal cells to release chemical signals to promote blood vessels to cancer cells Allows for oxygen to reach the tumor Allows for nutrients to reach the tumor
Promotes the growth of local capillaries to grow toward the tumor Allows for oxygen to reach the tumor Allows for nutrients to reach the tumor
Which of the following is most likely to occur when a tumor-suppressor gene is mutated?
The tumor-suppressor gene and resulting protein may lose their function and the ability to slow down the rate of the cell cycle.
____________ cell division is a hallmark of cancer.
Unregulated
The four nitrogenous bases are _____________ , thymine, guanine, and cytosine.
adenine
Homeostasis is defined as ________________ adjustments in physiological processes to respond to changes that disrupt the internal environment operating at the same set of conditions as the external environment maintaining a narrow range of internal conditions to optimize the body's performance allowing for large fluctuations in which enzymes of the body are still able to function correctly utilizing negative feedback mechanisms to maintain internal conditions mechanisms in place to regulate temperature, blood sugar, pH, and levels of chemicals in the blood
adjustments in physiological processes to respond to changes that disrupt the internal environment maintaining a narrow range of internal conditions to optimize the body's performance utilizing negative feedback mechanisms to maintain internal conditions mechanisms in place to regulate temperature, blood sugar, pH, and levels of chemicals in the blood
Unlike other treatments, chemotherapy affects _____________ of the cells of the body.
all
The sister chromatids separate and become individual chromosomes that begin to move toward the poles of the cell.
anaphase
These cancer cells will undergo ________________ and form new tumors in a different location
angiogenesis
Some chemotherapy medicines can kill a cell during _____________ of the cell cycle while others only kill cancer cells during a certain phase.
any phase
A difference between cancer cells and normal cells is that cancer cells __________.
are less specialized and continue to divide because they no longer function as part of a tissue or organ.
Tumors may be divided into one of two categories. _____________ are an abnormal growth composed of multiple layers of abnormal cells that are localized to one tissue type.
benign tumors
by _____________ channels like ducts, blood vessels, or lymphatic vessels, this _______________ disrupts the normal operations of the surrounding organs because it prevents the ability to transport materials.
blocking overcrowding x
__________ starts with changes at the genetic level of individual cells, which may cause some cells to lose control and divide rapidly and uncontrollably.
cancer
___________ is a disease that begins with changes in the body at the ____________ level due to abnormal cells dividing in a disorderly manner.
cancer cellular
Appear as irregular shaped cells
cancer cells
Cell are immortal due to the presence of the enzyme telomerase that continues to lengthen the ends of the telomeres
cancer cells
For cells to become _______ cells have to undergo changes that make them different from other cells of the body
cancerous
If a cell bypasses these regulations, the cell may not be able to stop continuously dividing and it is on its way to becoming _____________.
cancerous
Each ____________ operates a biological factory and is specialized to carry out a ____________ set of instructions.
cell specific
Billions of new ____________ are produced every day to repair damaged tissues or replace worn out cells.
cells
Cancer is a disease that occurs at the __________ level of biological organization of living things.
cellular
Because this process is so critical, the steps of mitosis are carefully controlled by a number of ____________ to ensure that each new daughter cell contains the same genetic information.
checkpoints
In other instances, the disruption of normal operations of an organ can lead to a change in the _______________ composition of the body's fluid.
chemical
_________________ typically refers to a type of cancer treatment that uses drugs to kill cancer cells.
chemotherapy
Unlike _________________ , which usually exposes the whole body to cancer-fighting drugs, radiation therapy can be directed against ______________ tissues and cells of the body. There are two types of radiation treatment.
chemotherapy specific
At the end of mitosis, the daughter cells are described as clones. For this description to be appropriate, the daughter cells must __________.
contain a set of genetic instructions that are identical to each other and that of the parent cell.
Taken as a series of X-ray pictures of the body at different angles to create a multi-dimensional view of the internal organs
ct scan (Computerized tomography scans)
The entire cell physically divides into two daughter cells.
cytokinesis
The last stage of the M phase, ___________ , is when the cytoplasm and the organelles are divided equally and form two new identical daughter cells.
cytokinesis
Two, cancer cells appear irregular in shape, and the nuclei of cancer cells are distinctly different from normal cells. The large, dark nuclei of cancer cells are due to the accumulation of _____.
dna
Although there are many different forms of cancer, it is presumed that cancer is a disease caused by the combined effects of both genetic and ____________ .
environmental factors
As a tumor forms, blood and nutrients will be directed away from the tumor in the body and toward the normal cells so homeostasis can still be maintained.
false
targeting the ____________ growing cancer cells, chemotherapy is one of the most effective means in: treating cancer and lessening the chance it will return controlling the spread of cancer by stopping or slowing its growth; or reducing cancer symptoms by shrinking tumors that are causing pain and other problems.
fastest
One, cancerous cells accumulate mutations that ignore the regulatory mechanisms of the cell cycle and cannot instruct them to stop dividing and to die. Therefore, cancer cells do not have a ______ lifespan.
fixed
Unfortunately, since cancer cells are the body's cells that have lost their _________________ , the antigens that would otherwise reveal a problem to the immune system are moved past and the danger from the cancer cells exists
genetic identity
The determination of whether an individual has an increased susceptibility to cancer
genetic testing dna microarray blood test
___________________ , technology that allows scientists to alter an organism's DNA, is being applied to research on cancer to hopefully decrease the risk of cancer by correcting mutations and restoring the function of a cell.
genome editing
Just like chemotherapy, radiation therapy has the ability to damage ______________ cells
healthy
If left undetected and untreated, _________ levels of blood calcium may lead to a coma and death.
high
at __________ doses, radiation can be used as a form of treatment to kill cancer cells or slow their growth by damaging the _______________
high dna
By disrupting the operation of the organs or by changing the body's fluids, these impacts prevent the body from functioning regularly or achieving ________________
homeostasis
calcium ______________, which refers to the maintenance of a stable concentration of calcium ions in the body's fluids, is critical for the function of all body organs.
homeostasis
Cancer detected in the body
imaging scan biopsies complete blood count
As the number of cancer cells ____________ , they may spread and invade nearby tissues and organs, disrupting their physiological processes and their ability to survive.
increases
Although Stage 4 breast cancer is considered ____________ , current medical advances have provided a number of treatments that Stage 4 breast cancer may respond to and thereby extend the life of the patient for several years.
incurable
________________ , another type of cancer treatment, uses energy to destroy cancer cells, shrink tumors, and ease cancer symptoms.
internal radiation therapy x
Most cells in the body are not actively dividing. Instead they spend the bulk of their time performing their normal functions, such as producing enzymes to digest food or helping to move the arms or legs. This part of the cell cycle is called __________.
interphase
________________ is the longest part of the cell cycle, and the M phase is the phase of the cell cycle when ________________ occurs
interphase cell division
Internal radiation therapy __________. requires the patient to get a tattoo to ensure the beam of energy is delivered to the same location each time is a type of cancer treatment that delivers a high dose of radiation in direct contact with the tumor and helps spare nearby tissues is the most commonly used form of radiation uses a pellet, known as a seed, to be placed in the body using a needle or catheter
is a type of cancer treatment that delivers a high dose of radiation in direct contact with the tumor and helps spare nearby tissues uses a pellet, known as a seed, to be placed in the body using a needle or catheter
The _________________ , one of the largest organs in the body, is an important metabolic organ and regulates most chemical levels in the blood. It aids in the process of _____________ the nutrients in our diets into substances that the body can use, _________________ these substances, and _____________ many different chemicals to the body when needed. __________________, therefore, can easily disrupt the chemistry of the body
liver converting stores supplies Liver cancer
When the genetic programming of a small group of cells becomes faulty, the cells start to ____________ their specialization.
lose
As more mutations accumulate in a cell, there is a ____________ of functions, and they no longer function as a part of surrounding tissue
loss
The generalized ____________ of control over cell reproduction exhibited by cancer cells is the result of accumulated abnormalities and is reflected in several aspects of cell behavior that distinguish cancer cells from their normal cells.
loss
Cancer cells might have traveled through your ______________ to different organs such as the lungs, heart, liver, or brain.
lymphatic system
______________ are responsible for removing excess fluid from the tissues and participate in the ________________.
lymphatic vessels immune response
During this checkpoint, the cell cycle stops and determines if the chromosomes are properly aligned to ensure equal division of genetic materials ________________
m checkpoint
The cell cycle is the life cycle of a cell, and it is divided into two distinct parts: interphase and
m phase
If a _______________ tumor comes into contact with the transport system of the body, this allows for the movement of cancer cells from one area of the body to other locations in the body. The spreading of cancer cells to new areas in the body is called _____________.
malignant metastasis
Posing the greatest threat to our bodies, _______________ are composed of ________________ cells that possess the ability to ____________ to other locations in the body.
malignant tumors unspecialized cells spread
Because it operates across the entire body, it is effective in treating or preventing ______________ .
metastasis
Cancer cells may develop the ability to migrate to other parts of the body and undergo the process of angiogenesis and form new tumors. This process is called __________ and represents a serious threat to the body.
metastasis
M phase is separated into two parts. The first part, ______________ , is when the genetic material condenses and is equally divided into two new nuclei.
mitosis
During ________________ , a cell duplicates all of its contents, including its chromosomes, and splits to form _____________ identical daughter cells.
mitosis two
stage 4 cancer is the ___________ advanced and life-threatening stage of breast cancer.
most
Uses powerful magnets and radio waves to produce detailed, computer-generated pictures of the body
mri (Magnetic resonance imaging testing)
If a cell accumulates ____________ and becomes less specialized, it no longer functions as part of the surrounding ______________ .
mutations tissue
However, it can interfere with cell division of normal cells, causing many _______________ side effectives.
negative
The order of the ___________ in the DNA molecule is how the information is stored.
nitrogenous bases
By targeting ______________ for destruction, the immune system can initiate an immune response and destroy foreign invaders.
non-self cells
By escaping detection of the immune system, cancer cells can continue to divide, forming ______________ , and possibly spread to other parts of the body.
non-self cells x
Appear as small, regular-shaped cells
normal cells
Have a fixed lifespan due to the length of the telomeres at the end of chromosomes
normal cells
Look similar to surrounding cells since these cells are genetically identical
normal cells
Unlike chemotherapy, radiation therapy is __________________ at destroying cancer cells that have metastasized since the process is more targeted against specific areas.
not effective
The response to radiation therapy is ________________ , and it takes days or weeks for the cells to stop dividing and die.
not immediate
DNA is an organic molecule called a ____________ and is made of up of units called _____________.
nucleic acid nucleotides
After a general physician makes the initial diagnosis of cancer, the actual staging of cancer is done by an ___________________.
oncologist
The process of cell division is a highly _______________ series of events that produces cells that are genetically _________ to each other.
organized identical
Some ____________ in the body plan an important role in regulating the ______________ of the body's fluid by retaining the proper amounts of solutes.
organs chemical composition
Radioactive material injected into the body to act as a tracer
pet (Positron emission tomography)
Each nucleotide consists of a sugar, a ______________ , and four nitrogenous bases.
phosphate
Replicated chromosomes condense and attach to the mitotic spindle.
prophase
___________________ is the movement of energy in the form of waves or particles.
radiation
_____________ refers to the movement of energy in the form of either _________ or particles
radiation waves
__________ is form of cancer management in which high-powered energy beams are used to kill cancer cells.
radiation therapy
Sometimes radiation can be expelled by ______________ in the form of alpha and beta particles to treat specific cells and tissues within the body.
radioactive compounds
Over time, the ______________ in function of the organ will cause the organ system to shut down and _________ may occur
reduction death
The production of cells is closely regulated by a variety of ____________ and genetic mechanisms within the cell to ensure that only the correct type and number of new cells are produced.
regulated x
The cells and organs of the immune system work by identifying ______________ versus nonself cells using proteins, called _______________ , found on the surface of all cells.
self antigens
As you move through the electromagnetic spectrum, you start with the highest energy and _________________ wavelengths, ________________ rays, to the _______________ energy and longest wavelengths, __________________
shortest gamma lowest radio waves
When nucleotides link together, they form a ________________ strand of DNA with a sugar phosphate backbone.
single
To determine the ______________ of cancer, the oncologist will answer the following questions using a variety of methods: What is the size of the tumor What is the degree to which it has invaded nearby tissues Is the cancer present in nearby lymph nodes To what extent has the cancer metastasized to other organs of the body? By answering these questions, the doctors are able to give a patient a prognosis and a plan of treatment.
stage
_____________ breast cancer refers to cancer that has ______________ beyond the breast tissue and nearby lymph nodes and into other areas of the body.
stage 4 metastasized
_____________ is the process of finding out how much cancer is in a person's body and where it's located.
staging
As new chromosomes reach the poles, the nuclear envelopes re-form, and the chromatin decondenses.
telophase
Adenine forms weak hydrogen bonds with _____________ and ________________ forms bonds with cytosine.
thymine guanine
The transfer of information from DNA to RNA is known as _______________. The transfer of information from RNA into a protein is known as _________________
transcription translation
Both capillaries and lymphatic vessels are part of the _____________ system of the body.
transport
As a ____________ forms and grows, the tumor will take up space and start to press against the surrounding tissues and organs.
tumor
Failure to undergo apoptosis and the cell's ability to continue to divide without regulation will create a mass of cells called a ________________ .
tumor
Which term describes an overgrowth of abnormal cells that serves no useful purpose?
tumor
But, DNA actually consists of __________ DNA strands forming a double helix in which the nitrogenous bases are _____________
two complements
The electromagnetic spectrum, which indicates the range of all types of radiation, is based on _________________
wavelengths
In external radiation therapy for cancer, gamma rays and __________________ are used because these contain the ______________ levels of energy.
x-rays highest