CCJ3701 Exam 3 (Brooke UF)

Jottings

brief notes that are jotted down quickly during the observation period that will be expanded into more extensive field notes.

"going native"

completely allowing the research to personally influence you (becoming one of them)

Inferential Stats

enable generalization or inference of sample findings to larger populations

Univariate analysis

examines one variable at a time

transnational research

explores how cultures and nations deal with crime that transcends their borders

True or False: One feature of secondary data analysis is the lack of ethical concerns

false

Participant Observation

field research in which a researcher develops a sustained and intensive relationship with the people while they go about their normal activities.

crime mapping

geographical mapping strategies used to visualize a number of things, including location, distance, and patterns of crime and their correlates

Median

midpoint and most appropriate for ordinal or ranked data

Mode

most frequently occurring score

Field Notes

notes that describe what has been observed, heard, or otherwise experienced in a participant observation study; these notes usually are written after the observational session.

Intensive Interviewing

open-ended, relatively unstructured questioning in which the interviewer seeks in-depth information on the interviewee's feelings, experiences, and/or perceptions.

Plagiarism

presenting as one's own the ideas or words of another person or persons for academic evaluation without proper acknowledgement.

comparative research

research comparing data from more than one time period or more than one culture or country; there are two types: descriptive comparative research and analytic comparative research

Field Research

research in which natural social processes are studied as they happen and left relatively undisturbed.

Participatory Action Research (PAR)

research in which the researcher involves some organizational members as active participants throughout the process of studying an organization; the goal is making changes in the organization.

Netnography (cyberethnography and virtual ethnography)

the use of ethnographic methods to study online communities;

Triangulation

the use of multiple methods to study one research question; also used to mean the use of two or more different measures of the same variable.

the following are steps in content analysis

1. Determining the units of analysis 2. Refining coding procedures 3. Selecting a sample from the population

the following are a common source of secondary data

1. Historical documents 2. Official statistics 3. Surveys

The following may cause problems with historical events research?

1. Loss or damage of historical documents 2. Existing evidence may be affected by the bias toward newsworthy figures 3. Feelings of individuals in the past are difficult at best to reconstruct

the following would be used in content analysis

1. Newspaper articles 2. City maps 3. Books

Skewness

A feature of a variable's distribution, referring to the extent to which cases are clustered more at one or the other end of the distribution rather than around the middle

Central tendency

A feature of a variable's distribution, referring to the value or values around which cases tend to center. •Mean, median, mode

Variability

A feature of a variable's distribution; refers to the extent to which cases are spread out through the distribution or clustered in just one location

Grouped frequency distributions

A frequency distribution in which the data are organized into categories, either because there are more values than can be easily displayed or because the distribution of the variable will be clearer or more meaningful

Bar Chart

A graphic for qualitative variables in which the variable's distribution is displayed with solid bars separated by spaces

Histogram

A graphic for quantitative variables in which the variable's distribution is displayed with adjacent bars

Gamma

A measure of association sometimes used in cross-tabular analyses

Method of Agreement

A method proposed by John Stuart Mill for establishing a causal relation in which the values of cases that agree on an outcome variable also agree on the value of the variable hypothesized to have a causal effect, whereas they differ in terms of other variables

Monotonic relationship

A pattern of association in which the value of cases on one variable increases or decreases fairly regularly across the categories of another variable

Statistical significance

A relationship that is not likely to be due to the chance, judged by a criterion set by the analyst (often that the probability is less than 5 out of 100, or p <.05

theoretical sampling

A sampling method recommended for field researchers by Glaser and Strauss (1967). A theoretical sample is drawn in a sequential fashion, with settings or individuals selected for study as earlier observations or interviews indicate that these settings or individuals are influential.

Correlation analysis

A standardized statistical technique that summarizes the strength of a relationship between two quantitative variables in terms of its adherence to a linear pattern

Variance/ Measures of dispersion

A statistic that measures the variability of a distribution as the average squared deviation of each score from the mean of all scores •Range, variance, standard deviation

Regression analysis

A statistical technique for characterizing the pattern of a relationship b/w 2 quantitative variables in terms of a linear equation and for summarizing the strength of this relationship

Compressed frequency display

A table that presents cross-classification data efficiently by eliminating unnecessary percentages, such as the percentage corresponding to the second value of a dichotomous variable

Combined frequency display

A table that presents together the distributions for a set of conceptually similar variables having the same response categories; common headings are used for the responses

Experience Sampling Methods (ESM)

A technique for drawing a representative sample of everyday activities, thoughts, and experiences; participants carry a pager and are beeped at random times over several days or weeks; upon hearing the beep, participants complete a report designed by the researcher

Measure of association

A type of descriptive statistic that summarizes the strength of an association

Specification

A type of relationship involving three or more variables in which the association between the IV & DV varies across the categories of one or more other control variables

Extraneous variable (EV)

A variable that influences both the IV & DV so as to create a spurious association between them that disappears when the extraneous variable is controlled

Deterministic casual approach

An approach in which there is a relationship between an independent and a dependent variable; the independent variable has an effect on the dependent variable in every case under consideration

Outlier

An exceptionally high or low value in a distribution

Chi Square

An inferential stats used to test hypotheses about relationships between two or more variables in a cross-tabulation

Positively skewed

Describes a distribution in which cases cluster to the left and the right tail of the distribution is longer than the left

Which of Bennett's two types of comparative research seeks to understand the structure, nature, or scope of a nation's criminal justice system?

Descriptive comparative research

the following is true about content analysis

Different coders may perceive different meanings in the same text segment

Advantages of Secondary Data over Primary

Easier to access, more cost-effective, large samples ang high-quality sampling methods

Discussion section

Evaluates and interprets draws conclusions limitations future research

Ngrams

Frequency graphs produced by Google's database of all words printed in more than one third of the world's books over time (with coverage still expanding).

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Independent variable is categorical with 3+ groups, the dependent variable is continuous

Assumptions Required for Using ANOVA

Interval Data Random Sampling Sample Drawn From A Normal Distribution

SPSS

Statistical package for the social sciences, canned or prewritten computer programs for statistical analysis in the social sciences.

Subtables

Tables describing the relationship between two variables within the discrete categories of one or more other control variables

Reactive effect

The changes in individual or group behavior that are due to being observed or otherwise studied

Negatively skewed

The left tail is longer; the mass of the distribution is concentrated on the right of the figure. A distribution in which cases cluster to the right side, and the left tail of the distribution is longer than the right.

Quartiles

The points in a distribution corresponding to the first 25% of the cases, the first 50% of the cases, and the top 25% of the cases.

Data Cleaning

The process of checking data for errors after the data have been entered in a computer file Helps clean up data Frequency distributions/Descriptive statistics

Elaboration analysis

The process of introducing a third variable into an analysis in order to better understand-to elaborate-- the bivariate relationship under consideration; additional control variables also can be introduced

Interquartile Range (IQR)

The range in a distribution b/w the end of the first quartile and the beginning of the third quartile

Bimodal distribution

a continuous probability distribution with two different modes. A distribution that has two nonadjacent categories with about the same number of cases, and these categories have more cases than any other categories

Standard Deviation

a highly useful stat in which plus or minus one of these always equals 68% of a normal curve

Pragmatism

a philosophy developed by John Dewey and others that emphasized the importance of taking action of taking action and learning from the outcomes to generate knowledge.

Peer Review

a process in which a journal editor sends a submitted article to two or three experts who judge whether the paper should be accepted, revised and resubmitted, or rejected; the experts also provide comments to explain their decisions and guide any revisions.

Focus Group

a qualitative method that involves unstructured group interviews in which the focus group leader actively encourages discussion among participants on the topics of interest.

content analysis

a research method for systematically analyzing and making inferences from text

Covert (Complete) Participation

a role in field research in which the researcher does not reveal his or her identity as a researcher to those who are observed; the covert participant has adopted the role of a "complete participant."

Complete Observation

a role in participant observation in which the researcher does not participate in group activities and is publicly defined as a researcher.

Effect Size

a standardized measure of association - other than the difference between the mean of the experimental group and the mean of the control group on the dependent variable, adjusted for the average variably in the two groups.

Systematic Observation

a strategy that increases the reliability of observational data by using explicit rules that standardize coding practices across observers.

Big Data

a very large set (e.g., contains thousands of cases) that is accessible in computer-readable form and is used to reveal patterns, trends, and associations between variables with new computer technology.

Secondary Data Analysis

analysis of data collected by someone other than the researcher or the researcher's assistant.

Tests of Significant

assesses whether the differences being observed and expected values could be due to chance or are statistically significant

Mean

average score

Qualitative methods are most appropriate when

When meanings people attach to events are not clear

Unimodal distribution

A distribution of a variable in which there is only one value that is the most frequent

Reporting research

1. Provide an honest accounting of how the research was carried out and where the initial research design had to be changed 2. Evaluate honestly the strengths and weaknesses of your research design 3. Refer to prior research and interpret your findings w/in the body of literature resulting from that prior research 4. Maintain a full record of the research project so that questions can be answered if they arise 5. Avoid "lying with stats" or using graphs to mislead 6. Acknowledge the sponsors of the research 7. Thank staff who made major contributions

the following the three main functions of crime mapping:

1. Provide visual and statistical analysis of the spatial nature of crime 2. Allows linkage of crime data to other data sources 3. Provides maps to visually communicate analysis results

3 possible roles of participant observation

1. complete observation 2. participation and observation 3. covert participation

typical steps to qualitative data analysis

1. documentation of the data and the process of data collection 2. organization of the data into concepts 3. connection of the data to show how one concept may influence another 4. corroboration, by evaluating alternative explanations, challenging validity, and searching for negative cases 5. reporting the findings

2 alternative approaches to qualitative data analysis

1. ethnography 2. computer-assisted qualitative data analysis

6 steps to identifying a population for content analysis

1. identify a population of documents or other textual sources for study 2. determine the units of analysis 3. select a sample of units from the population 4. design coding procedures for the variables to be measured 5. test and refine the coding procedures 6. base statistical analyses on counting occurrences of particular items

3 distinct types of qualitative research design

1. participant observation 2. intensive interviewing 3. focus groups

3 main functions of crime mapping

1. provides visual and statistical analyses of the spatial nature of crime and other events 2. allows the linkage of crime data to other data sources, such as census information on poverty or school information, which allows relationships between variables to be established 3. provides maps to visually communicate analysis results

4 major types of secondary data

1. surveys 2. official statistics 3. official records 4. other historical documents

types of sampling used in qualitative research

1. theoretical sampling 2. quota sampling 3. experience sampling method (ESM)

ethical issues in qualitative research

1. voluntary participation 2. subject well-being 3. identity disclosure 4. confidentiality 5. appropriate boundaries 6. researcher safety

General sections of a journal article

1.Abstract 2. Intro 3. Lit Review 4. Methods 5. Results 6. Discussion 7. References

Cross-Tabulation (cross-tab)

A bivariate (two-variable) distribution showing the distribution of one variable for each category of another variable

Constructivist paradigm

Methodology based on rejection of belief in an external reality; it emphasizes the importance of exploring the way in which different stakeholders in a social setting construct their beliefs

Risk-terrain modeling (RTM)

Modeling that uses data from several sources to predict the probability of crime occurring in the future, using the underlying factors of the environment that are associated with illegal behavior

Frequency distributions

Numerical display showing the number of cases, and usually the percentage of cases (the relative frequencies), corresponding to each value or group of values of a variable

Sources of Secondary Data

Other researchers/colleagues, files or databases, government website, inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research

Reverse Outlining

Outlining the sections in an already written draft of paper or report to improve its organization in the next draft

Types of Mixed Methods Designs

Quant and qual carry equal weight, quant is main and qual is supplementary, qual is main and quant is supplementary

Three Major Measures of Dispersion

Range Average Deviation Standard Deviation

Percentage

Relative frequencies, computed by dividing the frequency of cases in a particular category by the total number of cases, and multiplying by 100

Historical events research

Research in which social events of only one time period in the past are studied

Analytic comparative research

Research that seeks to understand how national systems work and the factors related to their operations

Descriptive comparative research

Research that seeks to understand the structure, nature, or scope of a nation's or nations' criminal justice systems or rates of crime

Mixed-Methods Research

Research that strategically combines quantitative and qualitative data and analyses to capitalize on the strengths of both approaches

Observation and Participation

Researcher takes a more active role in the activities of the observed subjects/group. Attempts to earn their trust by becoming one of them, in a way

When conducting ethical secondary data analysis, a researcher must be careful about:

Revealing sensitive information

Those who rely on data previously collected by other investigators are using:

Secondary data analysis

Geographic information system (GIS)

The software tool that has made crime mapping increasingly available to researchers since the 1990s

Ethnography

The study of a culture or cultures that some group of people shares, using participant observation over an extended period of time.

Marginal Distributions

The summary distributions in the margins of a cross-tabulation that correspond to the frequency distribution of the row variable and of the column variable

Base N

The total number of cases in a distribution

Qualitative Methods

These methods typically involve exploratory research questions, inductive reasoning, an orientation to social context and human subjectivity, and the meanings attached by participants to events and to their lives. Qualitative data are mostly written or spoken words or observations that do not have a direct numerical interpretation.

Multiphase Design

in mixed-methods research, this design involves a series of quantitative and qualitative designs; each design and the findings inform the next phase.

Transformative Design

in mixed-methods research, this design uses a theoretical perspective with a social justice focus to improve the well-being of vulnerable populations.

Convergent Parallel Design

in mixed-methods research, when quantitative and qualitative methods and implemented at the same time; the findings are integrated and interpreted together.

Embedded Design

in mixed-methods research, when the primary method is qualitative or quantitative, but the researcher adds the other component to gain additional insight.

Calculation of ANOVA

large variances between groups small variance within groups

Correlation Coefficient (Pearson's r)

shows relationship between two or more interval level variables; very meaningful stat. A summary stats that varies from 0 to 1 or -1, w/0 indicating the absence of a linear relationship b/w two quantitative variables and 1 or-1 indicating that the relationship is completely described by the line representing the regression of the DV on the IV

Range

simplest measurement of dispersion and represents the highest and lowest scope or distance between them

Descriptive Stats

summarizes or describes data or shows relationships between variables •Purposes: Organize, Summarize, Describe, Explain, Identify trends

saturation point

the point when new interviews seem to yield little additional information

Meta-synthesis

the qualitative analysis of findings from multiple qualitative studies.

Exploratory Sequential Design

the qualitative method is implemented first followed by the quantitative method.

Meta-analysis

the quantitative analysis of findings from multiple studies.

Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)

this federal law stipulates that all persons have a right to access all federal agency records unless the records are specifically exempted.

True or False: The boundaries separating different methods of data collection often overlap.

true

True or False: Using the National Youth Survey to examine the mechanisms explaining variation in violent delinquency is an example of secondary data analysis.

true