Ch 1 Inquizitive

Junto wonders if a different-sized elevator would change the level of awkwardness people feel in an elevator.

Research question A nonspecific question about a possible research outcome is referred to as a research question.

Junto records the participants' awkwardness ratings and analyzes them to see if there is a difference among the different-sized elevators.

Data Scientists collect information, or data, from a study. The data help them continue to shape their theory.

Scientific knowledge is created by and belongs to the community.

communality Scientists should be transparent with their work and share it with other scientists and the public.

a questionnaire a thermometer a stopwatch

empirical evidence A questionnaire, or survey, can be used as an instrument for systematic and rigorous measurement.

Scientists question their own theories and even widely accepted ideas.

organized skepticism Scientists should always look for evidence.

Francesca submits her expected results to a website before collecting data.

preregistration Responsible researchers should preregister time-stamped hypotheses to a website before collecting data.

someone who takes research and applies it to their career or daily life

research consumer This could be anyone who makes valuable use of research, including you if you read about research in the news.

Scientific claims are evaluated based on merit, and not by the researcher's reputation.

universalism According to this scientific norm, anyone can do science, and all science is evaluated by the same criteria.

someone who facilitates the research process in order to increase knowledge

research producer This could be a university professor, a laboratory assistant, or a data analyst. Nearly everyone falls into one, or even both, of these roles.

Researchers will ideally post their hypotheses publicly online before collecting data.

True This is the process of preregistration, or posting hypotheses online with a time stamp so that their prediction is recorded prior to the start of the study.

keep up to date on current product trends look at analyses conducted by other firms, and inform clients of the findings

consuming research Consultants have to be critical consumers of current trends to make proper recommendations to their clients. Consultants often consume research conducted by other firms to make the best decisions.

Every theory should be falsifiable.

True A theory that is not falsifiable cannot truly be tested.

Sociologist Robert Merton (1942) named four norms that scientists should follow. One of these norms is __________, which means that scientists should accept almost nothing at face value. If researchers follow the theory-data cycle and follow the norms of the scientific community, science will be __________.

organized skepticism self-correcting If researchers follow Merton's four scientific norms, science will naturally discover and correct its own mistaken theories.

Francesca submits her findings to a journal to be evaluated for publication.

peer-review process Before an article is published in a journal, it must go through a rigorous peer-review process.

using previous studies to create a new study that analyzes all of those previous findings creating and testing a hypothesis on sexuality in teenagers

producing research Even though this is an example of reviewing previous research, researchers are still generating new findings by analyzing older ones. Creating and testing a hypothesis is part of using the research process to produce new data.

test different marketing strategies to identify the best one collect and analyze data, and present the results to clients

producing research Marketing consultants conduct studies comparing a variety of marketing strategies to make the best recommendation to their clients. A key role of consultants is to analyze data from their clients to identify trends and make recommendations. Many professions, including consulting, require both consuming and producing research.

Scientific journal articles usually exaggerate their findings, while news stories do not.

News stories can exaggerate or overstate research findings when covering a scientific journal article.

Scientific journal articles are peer-reviewed, while news stories are not.

True Before they are published, scientific journal articles go through a rigorous peer-review process, in which experts in the field comment on the works' flaws and merits. News stories generally do not go through this process.

Researchers rarely stop at one study; they usually follow up on findings with additional studies.

True Researchers evaluate theories based on the weight of the evidence, so they will usually follow up with additional studies, including replications, to add to a growing body of information.

Scientific journal articles are generally read by scientists and students, while news stories are read by the general public.

True Scientific journal articles are usually read by scientists and psychology majors, but rarely by the general public. News stories make the content of a journal article more accessible to the general audience.

Multiple replications of the same study provide strong support for a theory.

True Scientists evaluate theories based on the weight of the evidence—the information from all the different studies conducted on the same theory. Therefore, replicating a study multiple times to see if the results are consistent can be strong support for a theory.

Identify the true and false statements about what researchers should do when the data do not support the theory behind their study's hypothesis.

True They should improve the research design. (Researchers can modify the research design before testing the theory again.) They should consider revising the theory. (Researchers may revise their theory when it is not supported by the data.) False They should consider discarding the theory. (Researchers should not throw away a theory just because one study does not support it.) They should disprove the theory. (Researchers never "prove" or "disprove" theories.)

Which of the following practices are common ways in which journalists misrepresent research studies in their media articles?

Way(s) to Misrepresent Original Research selecting only certain parts of the results to write about (In their summary of the research, journalists might only focus on certain findings, which can misrepresent the results.) exaggerating the importance of the findings (Journalists may exaggerate the importance of findings to make a story more engaging or eye-catching.) Not Way(s) to Misrepresent Original Research recalculating the published statistics (Reporting statistical calculations different from those in a study would certainly be misrepresenting the study. But journalists do not often recalculate or correct statistics of research studies.) using terms that can only be understood by those with specialized knowledge (Because journalists write for the general population, they usually avoid using jargon.) Media sources can report research in a way that is easy for a popular audience to understand, so they are valuable sources of information. However, they can also often exaggerate or misrepresent the results of research studies, so it is important for consumers of media to have a critical mindset.

Scientists are not swayed by profit or idealism but rather strive to discover the truth.

disinterestedness Scientists should not be biased in the interpretation or reporting of results but rather accept what the data tells them.

Psychological scientists base their conclusions on evidence. They collect and use data to develop, support, or challenge a theory. What is this approach called?

empiricism As empiricists, psychologists know what they know because they have conducted studies using systematic and rigorous measurements of evidence from the senses (e.g., sight, hearing, and touch) or from instruments that measure the senses.

Using evidence from the senses (or from an instrument, such as a thermometer or questionnaire, that assists the senses) as the basis for conclusions is known as what?

empiricism This process encourages work that is rigorous and verifiable.

Mercedes comes across an article on Twitter about how some people are wearing tinfoil hats to ward against remote mindreading by the government. A problem with conspiracy theories, such as government mental surveillance, is that it is impossible to gather evidence to test whether there is support for them. This means that the remote mindreading conspiracy theory is not __________.

falsifiable Because remote mindreading cannot be observed or measured, there is no way to demonstrate that the theory is incorrect.

Harlow's __________ was that baby monkeys would spend most of their time with the fuzzy, cloth-covered mother. Harlow's __________ was that babies are attached to their mothers for the comfort mothers provide, not for the food. The amount of time baby monkeys spent on the wire mother and the cloth-covered mother was Harlow's __________.

hypothesis theory data

Do farm safety days decrease accidents among rural children? Do tablet computers increase the productivity of nurses in an emergency room?

applied research In this case, the research deals with a practical problem in a real-world setting. Researchers want to see if efforts toward farm safety cause change in the real world. This research tackles the practical problem of nurse productivity and was conducted in a real-world setting.

A scientific __________ is a periodic publication that is __________ and contains articles written by qualified __________.

journal peer-reviewed researchers Even though magazines often run stories based on what is published in scientific journals, journalists may alter details that completely change the meaning of the original article. In scientific journals, on the other hand, details and conclusions are rarely misrepresented because of the rigorous peer-review process.

What are the effects of cocaine on the sociability of rats? How quickly can the human eye switch between targets?

basic research Animal testing adds to a body of knowledge, but it cannot be used to directly address a practical problem. The answer to this research question adds to a body of knowledge but has no direct application to a real-world problem.

Psychologists engage in what aspect(s) of research?

both the production and consumption of research While it may seem that psychologists are only producers of research, in daily practice they also study (or consume) research that has already been conducted in order to come up with (or produce) their own studies.

Francesca measures the students' performance on the attention task.

collecting data The data in Francesca's study involve both the measurement of performance on the attention task and recording of the condition (mindfulness versus reading) each participant was assigned to.

reporting current trends in biology research in a news article using research findings to update patients' treatment plans

consuming research Journalists often consume research by synthesizing information for the public. Health care workers use information from existing research to get patients the best care.

Zanna is a high school teacher. After reading a headline in the newspaper that states, "Scared Straight program sets teens on straight path," she considers implementing this program in her classroom. But when Zanna digs deeper to look at published studies with randomized, controlled groups, she sees that teens who were in a Scared Straight program actually committed more crimes that teens who were not. What key point does Zanna's experience best illustrate?

the importance of being a smart consumer of research Zanna took a critical look at the news story and read the original research, only to determine that the newspaper misrepresented the findings.

A statement, or a set of statements, that describes general principles about how variables are related to one another is a(n) __________. A specific outcome that the researcher expects to find is a(n) __________.

theory (A theory, such as Harlow's contact comfort theory, describes generally how variables may be related to each other.) hypothesis (A hypothesis is a specific prediction that the researcher makes about the study's results. Hypotheses are based on a theory.)

Is there physiological evidence that circadian rhythm is linked to mood? Using the findings of previous research on circadian rhythms, can adjusting light exposure in a laboratory study show an improvement in mood? How effective is light therapy at treating depression in college students?

Basic research Translational research Applied research The same topic can be approached as a basic, applied, or translational research study.

Which of the following features are characteristics of a good theory?

Characteristic(s) of a Good Theory supported by data (Good theories are supported by or consistent with data.) falsifiable (A good theory can be falsified, or potentially not be consistent with the data.) Not Characteristic(s) of a Good Theory proven by data (Researchers can never "prove" theories; they can only say that data support or are consistent with theories.) intuitive (Theories are not based on intuition or common sense.)

Jimin comes across a news report with the headline "Protein shakes make you a better athlete." Identify the tactics that Jimin should take to avoid being misled by this news report.

Correct consult the original source of the article (Consulting the original scientific findings is a good way to avoid being misled by news reports.) have a skeptical mindset and ask questions about the results (It is important to maintain a skeptical mindset, but not completely reject or accept the content without asking the right questions.) Incorrect use common sense to decide whether the news report is true or false (We should not rely on gut feelings or intuition when dealing with research.) assume that the journalist's report is completely wrong (Journalists can distort or exaggerate original research findings, but this does not mean that the entire report is wrong.) accept that everything in the article is true (Journalists can distort or exaggerate original research findings, so it is important to be skeptical of the report.)

Dimitri is interested in understanding the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory. Which of the following actions are empirical approaches Dimitri could take to research this topic?

Empirical approach He could conduct a study looking at whether number of hours of sleep is associated with memory function. (Empiricism involves collecting data to develop, support, or challenge a theory. Conducting a study is an example of empiricism.) He could design and implement a study that measures short-term memory function following different amounts of sleep. Not empirical approach He could consider his own experiences with sleep and memory. (Personal experiences, intuition, and other forms of reasoning that are unsupported by data (even if they come from an expert) are not examples of empiricism.) He could watch several movies about sleep deprivation and make a strong, logical argument about the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory based on the films. He could ask his psychology professor for her opinion on the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory.

A single study can debunk a theory if the data are inconsistent with the theory.

False A single study will rarely lead a researcher to discard a theory entirely. If the data are inconsistent with the theory, the researcher might consider a different research design.

If a research study's findings are consistent with the theory, that is proof that the theory is valid.

False A study does not "prove" or "disprove" theories. Rather, the results can be consistent with or support the theory.

If a result does not support a theory, that theory should be discarded.

False It is often the case that the theory or research design just needs to be modified, as depicted by the theory-data cycle.

Only one study is needed for researchers to be confident about a research finding.

False Multiple studies are usually conducted on the same theory because theories are evaluated based on the weight of the evidence.

Scientific journal articles have multiple contributors, while news stories do not.

False Scientific journal articles and news stories can both have multiple contributors.

If a researcher tests their hypothesis and the results are as predicted, this proves their theory.

False Scientists should never use words like prove; instead, they should say that the results "support" or "are consistent with" their theory.

Junto believes that participants will feel less awkward in a larger elevator than in a smaller elevator.

Hypothesis Hypotheses are predictions of how the research design will turn out.

You may pursue a career where it is important to have a critical eye. You may encounter a mix of high-quality information and false information on social media.

Reason(s) to Know How to Be a Consumer Many jobs, such as social work, teaching, business, or even parenting, require careful and critical consumption of information. A teacher may want to ask questions about research conducted on the best testing methods, and a social worker may want to critically evaluate the methodology of a study published on a new therapy method. It's important to be a critical consumer so that you can evaluate and ask the appropriate questions about information you encounter on the Internet.

You may need to write a paper following the guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA). You may work as an assistant in a psychology lab.

Reason(s) to Know How to Be a Producer If you are writing an APA-style paper, you will need to be familiar with a basics of the research process. Working in a lab actually helps in producing research! You will need to know the basics of the research process to help with the research process in a lab.

Junto creates a plan to test participants' levels of awkwardness in different-sized elevators to understand what effect elevator size may have on awkwardness.

Research design A research design is a concrete plan to answer a research question.

Based on previous data, Junto believes that most people do not interact in an elevator because it is a confined space and they feel awkward.

Theory When scientists use previous data to generate a general idea about how variables may be related, they are theorizing.

__________ leads researchers to pose particular --> __________ which lead to an appropriate --> __________ to test a specific __________ --> The hypothesis is ideally __________ before they collect and analyze --> __________ which feed back into the cycle. --> Supporting data strengthen the theory, Nonsupporting data lead to revised theories or improved research design.

Theory (Theories describe researchers' general ideas of how variables may be related.) Research questions (Once researchers have a theory, they can ask general questions about the nature of the relationships between variables.) Research design (Researchers set up a plan, or a research design, to answer the research questions they are interested in.) Hypothesis (Before collecting any data, it is important for researchers to predict a specific outcome of the study, or a hypothesis.) Preregistered (Ideally, researchers should preregister their hypothesis online with a time stamp to indicate that their hypothesis was in place before data were collected.) Data (The data gathered from the research study may either support or challenge the researchers' theory.)

Yara tells a few of her friends about a study that, she heard, showed that being less motivated to succeed can improve test performance. Yara, however, did not fully understand the study's finding, which was that being overly motivated can hinder test performance. What is the consequence of Yara's being a poor research consumer?

Yara and her friends could potentially adopt a practice that hurts, rather than helps, their test scores. Spreading inaccurate scientific information can affect you and those around you.

Yousef's professor tells him that his theory about dating is not strong because it is not falsifiable. What does the professor mean by this?

Yousef's theory cannot be tested to see whether it is supported by data. Good theories are falsifiable, which means they can possibly be shown not to be supported by data.

a convincing argument an expert opinion common sense

not empirical evidence Just because an argument seems to make sense, it doesn't mean that it is supported by empirical evidence. A logical argument may still be based on personal experience and intuition, unless it is specifically tested in a systematic and rigorous manner. Information based on personal experience and intuition, even if it's from a source considered to be an expert, is not considered empirical evidence. Information based on personal experience and intuition is not considered empirical evidence.

Francesca read about the Mrazek et al. (2013) study in which students scored higher on the GRE after completing a two-week mindfulness training course. She decides to conduct a similar study in which she has students either practice mindfulness or read a passage, and then take an attention span test. Francesca predicts that the students who practiced mindfulness will have better attention span scores. She runs the study and finds that the results match her prediction. Match each term to the correct example from Francesca's study. Francesca conducts a second study to see if she finds consistent results.

replication Replication involves conducting another study on the same research question.

Place the steps of the theory-data cycle in the order in which they usually occur.

theory (In order to proceed with conducting research, researchers should first have a formal set of ideas about how variables might relate to each other.) research question (Once they have established a theory, researchers can begin asking questions about the nature of the relationships between variables that they are seeking to study.) research design (A design is a concrete plan to answer research questions.) hypothesis (Hypotheses are predictions of how the research design will turn out.) preregistration (Researchers publicly state online, with a time stamp, the outcome they expect from their study.) data (The data that researchers collect can either support the theory or lead to revisions in the theory or research design.)

Francesca goes through the process of conducting a study to evaluate the effects of mindfulness on attention span.

theory-data cycle The theory-data cycle involves coming up with a research question based on a theory, setting a research design to test a hypothesis, and then collecting data to see if the theory is supported.

After reading about Harlow's contact comfort theory, Dr. Borden wonders if Harlow's findings would apply to premature babies in a neonatal intensive care unit. He designs a study to test whether touch and cuddling could speed up weight gain in premature babies. What type of research does Dr. Borden's study fall under?

translational research Dr. Borden is translating the findings from basic research (Harlow's contact comfort theory) to a study that has real-world implications (testing an intervention for premature babies).

Can laboratory studies on empathy's link to racism be used to develop a new program for elementary schools? Can the previously documented persuasive effects of scarcity be used to increase recycling?

translational research In this case, researchers are seeing whether previous laboratory studies on the relationship between empathy and racism can be applied to the real-world setting of elementary schools. Here, researchers take what has been learned about scarcity in basic research and apply it to the public problem of recycling.