Ch. 12-soc. 303

Adjustments after Divorce

(Hetherington, 2002 Study): Found that after 20 years of divorce ex- spouses fall into one of the following categories 1.Enhanced (20%) - mostly successful at work, socially, and as parents. 2.Competent Loners (10%) - emotionally self-sustaining, but felt they did not need a lifetime companion. 3.Good Enoughs (40%) - Divorce was difficult, but it did not make a lasting impression, good or bad. 4.Defeated (10%) - Succumbed to depression, substance abuse, and or purposelessness. 5.Seekers or Libertines (20%) Seekers - people who marry quickly after divorce (usually men) Libertines - people who live life in the fast lane following divorce, have casual sex, and don't follow many dating rules.

Cohort

1. Cohort - People in the same cohort (born at the same time) often experience the same rate of divorce. Example: •Of the women whose 1st marriage occurred from 1955-1959 (most likely born during the Great Depression), 79% were still married 15 years later. •Of the women whose 1st marriage occurred from 1985-1989 (most likely born at the beginning of the Baby Boom), 57% were still married 15 years later.

Rigid and Unproductive Triangles

1. Remarried parents in the middle of step-parent & step-child relationship. 2. Remarried parent and stepparent standing against former spouse. 3. Child caught in between hostile former spouses. 4. Child caught in the middle between mother and stepmother or father and stepfather.

Welfare

1935 - AFDC (Aid to Families with Dependent Children) was created to assist families with low incomes. This was a source of help for women following divorce. 1996 - AFDC was replaced by TANIF (Temporary Assistance for Needy Families).

Step-families with a mutual child

50% of remarriages have a child born within 2 yrs. About 5% of stepfamilies have three sets of children - "hers", "his" and "ours".

Who initiates divorce more often?

67% of divorces are initiated by women 33% of divorces are initiated by men

Homogamous Marriage

A marriage of individuals who share similar social characteristics (education level, social class background, religion, race, ethnicity, etc)

Heterogamous Marriage

A marriage where individuals do not share social characteristics. Heterogamous marriages have higher divorce rates than homogamous marriages.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Remarriage

Advantages of Remarriage: People are more likely to carefully chose a second mate. People are older and more mature when they remarry, more willing to compromise. Disadvantages of Remarriage: People may be more willing to bail out of a bad relationship. If the age difference is large, they may find later that they have little in common.

Race/Ethnicity

African Americans - Economic instability is greater for African American couples which contributes to a higher divorce rate than for White couples. Hispanics - Overall the divorce rate for Latinos is approximately the same as it is for Whites. However 1st generation Latino immigrants have very low divorce rates, while 3rd generation Latinos have divorce rates similar to that of African Americans. Arab Americans - Overall they have a lower divorce rate than the population as a whole. 1st generation Arab couples have low divorce rates, however the divorce rate among 2nd and 3rd generation Arabs is rising.

Remarriage affected by - age, socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, religion

Age - the older a woman is the less likely she is going to remarry. Socioeconomic Status - the more money a divorced man has the more likely he is to remarry (the reverse is true for women). Race - African Americans and Latinos remarry at lower rates than Whites. Religion - The Catholic Church does not recognize remarriage, thus people who are devout Catholics are less likely to remarry after divorce.

The Life Cycle

Although the divorce rate has drifted lower in the past 30 years, the rate for people over 50 has risen significantly. The "Gray Divorce Revolution" has several possible sources. a. People are living longer now, which decreases marriages being dissolved due to death of a spouse. b. Society is more accepting of divorce than in previous generations. c. The increase of women in the labor force has given them economic autonomy, allowing them to support themselves outside of marriage.

Children and Divorce

Around 65% of divorcing couples have children Most children of divorce will live with their mothers Children often "lose" their fathers after a divorce.

Power Issues

As in all marriages, there can be power struggles between spouses, their ex-spouses, and children.

Complex step-families

Both adults have children from a previous marriage living in the house - the greater the number of children, the more likely the couple will divorce.

Conflicting Loyalties

Children can feel torn apart when their parents no longer live together. The more amicable the parental relationships the less conflict the child will feel.

Intergenerational Transmission of Divorce

Children from divorced families are more likely to experience divorce when they grow up than children from intact families.

Do Opposites Attract?

Couples who agree on the following tend to be more compatible and therefore are less likely to divorce. Money (how much to spend, what money should be spent on, and how much to save) Sex (includes sexual compatibility, sexual behavior, frequency of sex) Division of Labor (how will labor be divided, who is going to do what) Children (how many to have, how to raise them) Religion (type of religion, religious vs. non-religious, religion as it relates to how children will be raised). Politics (progressive/liberal, moderate, conservative, etc.)

Conservative view of divorce

Debate over Divorce There is an ongoing, contentious debate among scholars, religious leaders, marriage counselors, and others over divorce and its consequences for individuals and society. Conservative View: Marriage gives adults a sense of meaning, stability, and security. It is a setting in which children develop into healthy, competent and productive citizens. Divorce and single-parent families are viewed as the source of social problems including poverty, crime, substance abuse, and educational problems.

Consequences for Children of Divorce

Decline in household income and resources Moving to a new home/school Behavior problems Decline in school performance Emotional distress *However most studies show that children of divorce do not experience severe or long term problems.

Progressive View of Divorce

Divorce, although temporarily stressful, represents a second chance at happiness for adults, and an escape from a dysfunctional home life for children. Poverty, abuse, neglect, poorly funded schools and a lack of government support services represents a more serious threat to the well being of adults and children than divorce.

Remarriage among the Elderly

Each year approx 500,000 people over the age of 65 remarry after divorce or widowhood. Issues: Who controls money Acceptance by adult children Different expectations Men often want someone to cook, clean, & care for them Women often want companionship and romance.

His-Divorce

Ex-husbands have some major advantages and few disadvantages over their ex-spouses. 1.) Improved Standard of Living 2.) Increased Personal Freedom 3.) Personal Isolation (especially for men from traditional marriages)

Stepmother families

Families composed of a father and stepmother (less common) Research has found that stepmothers have a more difficult time integrating into the family than stepfathers.

Stepfather families

Families composed of a mother and a stepfather are the most common type of step family structure. Boys respond more favorably than girls to this type of living situation. Acceptance by stepchildren is more positive when stepfathers engage in less discipline and control behaviors.

A Casualty of War: Divorce

Historically divorce rates have increased following wars Divorce rates also increased following the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. From 2001-2004 among active duty army officers divorce rates doubled. The divorce rate is higher for female soldiers than male soldiers. Question: Why is this the Case? Stress, redeployment, young people rushing into marriage, fear, uncertainty, unstable finances

Premarital Cohabitation

In the past, when cohabitation was not the norm, research found a significantly higher divorce rate for cohabitors. Today, 65% of couples who get married cohabitate first. A 2010 report by the National Center for Health Statistics found that when couples who were engaged move in together, their chances of divorce was the same as couples who never cohabitated before marriage.

Inter-racial Marriage

Inter-racial couples have higher divorce rates than Intra-racial (couples of the same race). However there is variation by race and gender a. Compared to White couples, White female/Black male, and White female/Asian male marriages are more prone to divorce. b. However marriages involving non- White females and White Males and Latinos had similar or lower risks of divorce.

Divorce in Bi-National Marriages

Marriages between people from different countries. Spouses who come from different countries may follow different customs, traditions, and laws. In these circumstances child abduction by one parent is more common. In 65% of cases it is committed by the mother. Some mothers do this because they feel they have no economic means or rights in a particular country to win custody of their children 1980 Hague Convention: A treaty was signed by advanced industrialized nations and most of Latin America. However Japan, China, Russia and most Muslim countries have not signed the treaty. It says that countries must send abducted children back to the jurisdiction where they had previously lived. The U.S. has identified several countries that have shown patterns of non-compliance: Honduras, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, Ecuador, Germany, Greece, Mexico, Poland, and Venezuela.

Boundary Disputes

Often children are members of two separate households which can result in blurred boundaries, that need to be negotiated by adults.

Education

People with lower educational levels on average, are more likely to divorce than those with higher levels of education. Couples with high levels of educational achievement, on average, are less likely than those with lower levels of education to divorce. One exception is that highly educated women (similar to women with independent incomes) are more likely to divorce than highly educated men.

The Circumstance of the First Birth

Premarital pregnancy and births increase the risk of divorce. Women who have a child prior to getting married or who are pregnant at the time of the marriage have higher divorce rates. An unplanned pregnancy works against marital success because the newlyweds may feel that they are trapped with little choice. The arrival of a baby does not give them sufficient time to adapt to married life. A new born baby limits educational and career opportunities, especially for young women.

Is Marriage a Failed Instiution?

Religious leaders, and politicians often look at statistics on divorce and portray an image of marriage as a "failed institution." We must not lose sight of two facts. 1.Overwhelmingly most people want to get married. Talbot (2000) argues that the right to divorce is deeply ingrained in American culture precisely because we have the ideal of a mutually fulfilling marriage. 2.The overwhelming majority of those who divorce remarry. Thus marriage is not a dying institution but quite alive.

Divorce for Same Sex Couples

Same sex marriage in the United States is such a new phenomenon that little research has been conducted on patterns of divorce for same sex couples. The Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Law and Public Policy, conducted a study on divorce rates among same sex couples. They found that same sex couples are slightly less likely to divorce than heterosexual couples.

Social Class

Several trends lead to a continued marriage gap by social class. Those with a H.S. education or less are more likely than educated peers to be pregnant at time of marriage, marry young, have children early, and be limited to low end/dead end jobs. All of these things contribute to a higher divorce rate. As education increases with a couple, their risk of divorce decreases, as a larger portion of the population seeks higher education, this may have an effect on divorce rates. There is more of a trend towards stable marriages. Ex. Marriages that began in the 1990's were more likely to celebrate a 10th anniversary than those what began in 1970's & 1980's.

Remarriage and New Family Forms

Step-Family: The family form created in a remarriage that involves children from the previous marriage of either spouse. Also called: Reconstituted Family Blended Family Binuclear Family

Outsiders vs insiders point of view

Successful stepfamilies integrate outsiders in to the family unit. Those that don't can have problems.

Her-Divorce

The benefits of divorce for women are few. 1.) Personal Isolation 2.) Decreased Standard of Living 3.) The Feminization of Poverty 4.) Divorce as an Opportunity for Change

Trends in Divorce

The divorce rate has been rising since at least 1860. Since the early 1980s the divorce rate has been declining. Still 40-50% of marriages end in divorce. Couples who separate do so, on average, after 7 years and divorce after 8 years. 75% of divorced men remarry, 60% of divorced women remarry

Income

The lower the socioeconomic status, the higher the probability of divorce.

Trend in cohabitation

The number of couples cohabitating has dramatically increased. 41% of people who cohabitate go on to get married. 59% of people who cohabitate do not marry. A generation ago many of these couples would have married (and got divorced). Therefore cohabitation today contributes to lower overall divorce figures. Historically, economic downturns increase the divorce rate. However that has not yet been seen since the start of the Great Recession.

The Presence of Children

The presence of children affects family stability in several ways. Couples with children are less likely to divorce. The likelihood of divorce decreases as family size increases (1-4 children) however couples who have 4 or more children increases the likelihood of divorce. Divorce rates are lower among families with young children (under 3) and higher in families with older children (13+).

The Feminization of Poverty

The rapid rise in the numbers of female-headed households living in poverty. Causes: Peak in divorce rate during the 1960's-1970's Unequal pay for men and women In the majority of cases women are responsible for caring for children when a couple breaks up Many women do not receive child support although it has been awarded by the courts Decline in welfare and social service programs to help poor families

Age at First Marriage

The younger the couple gets married, the more likely they are to divorce. 59% of marriages for women under 18 end in divorce

Trend in covenant marriages

Trend in "covenant marriage" in certain parts of the country may make it more difficult for couples to get divorced. Conservatives have reacted to "no fault divorce" laws, saying it makes divorce too easy. Many states are trying to legislate ways to discourage divorce. Ex. "Covenant Marriages" in many southern states only grant divorces after counseling and only if: 1.The couple has been separated for more than 2 years 2.Either spouse has committed adultery 3.A spouse is convicted of a felony 4.A spouse physically/sexually abuses spouse 5.Spouse abandons home and doesn't return for 1 year.

Remarriage after Divorce

Women are less likely than men to remarry if they are older, well educated and have children. About 50% of all marriages are a remarriage for at least one of the adults. The remarriage rate has declined since the 1960's but this is likely the result of increasing cohabitation. The risk of divorce is greater for second marriages than for first marriages. Divorce is likely to occur more quickly in remarriages than first marriages.

Employment

Women often earn less than men, so this disadvantages them after divorce. The average pay for female workers is 78% of the average pay for men. Women's pay is often reduced further by childcare costs.

Trend in getting married at an older age

Young people are marrying about 5 years later than they did in the past. The later the marriage takes place, the less likely the couple is to divorce. The basis for the high divorce rate in the 1970's was the rise of new feminists and challenges to traditional gender roles. Today it is more likely that both partners are aware going into a marriage about their future spouse's beliefs concerning gender roles.

Religion

•24% of all adults have experienced divorce at least once during their lifetime. •Interreligious couples have a higher divorce rate than couples who share the same religion.

Marital Property

•Courts often treat men and women equally at time of divorce. •This can put full-time homemakers, women who work part-time, and women who put their careers on hold to support husband's career at a disadvantage.

Child Support

•Only 45% of families receive their full child support payment •The poorer the family, the less likely they are to receive child support

Alimony

•Rarely awarded by the court •Usually it is only for the very wealthy

Outcomes for Stepchildren

•Typically experience several major life transitions that can disrupt child-parent relationships •May struggle with acceptance and role of step-parent •Usually have better relationships with step-parents who ease into role rather than try to take control too quickly •Most step-children work through difficulties, however 20% of step-children are at greater risk for negative outcomes.