Ch. 14 AP Gov.

How does the prime minister of Great Britain pick his cabinet ministers?

From among members of Parliament. This is one way by which the prime minister exercises control over the legislature.

If you were an ambitious member of Parliament, and wanted to become prime minister someday, you would...

not antagonize the prime minister doing the appointing.

Between 1952 and 2006, how many of the 27 congressional or presidential elections have produced a divided government?

18. When W. Bush became president in 2001, it was only the 3rd time since 1969 that the same party controlled the White House and Congress. It was the first time since 1953 when the Republicans were in charge. However, one Republican in Congress announced that he was independent and voted with the Democrats. The gov. was divided until another republican was elected in 2002.

How many people were elected president from 1828 to 2000?

31 different people. Of these, the great majority were governors, military leaders, or vice presidents. Only 13% were legislators just before becoming president.

What emerged in appointing people to federal office?

A general rule of "fitness": Those appointed should have some standing in their communities and be well thought of by their neighbors. Appointments based on partisanship soon arose, but community stature couldn't be neglected.

What was Eisenhower before he became president?

A general, not a politician.

Divided Government

A government in which one party controls the White House and a different party controls one or both houses of Congress.

Except for the administration of Teddy Roosevelt and Wilson, until the New Deal, what was the president?

A negative force. A source of opposition to Congress, not a source of initiative and leadership for it. After Lincoln, Congress again became powerful and the principal federal institution. However it had become quite clear that a national emergency could equip the president with great powers and that a popular and strong-willed president could expand his powers even without an emergency.

What did some of the Framers propose for an executive?

A plural national executive, where several people would hold the executive power in different areas, or they would exercise the power as a committee. Others wanted the power checked by a council.

Why do we all have an interest in some degree of gridlock?

All of us don't like something. Even Americans who hate gridlock and want more leadership aren't ready to make sweeping constitutional changes or to stop voting for presidents and members of Congress from different parties. This suggests that they like the idea of somebody being able to block a policy they don't like.

Who's invention was the popularly elected president?

America's.

How was Jackson elected?

As a military hero, but he had been a member of the House and Senate.

What was Franklin Roosevelt before he was president?

Assistant secretary of the navy and governor of New York.

How did Lincoln justify his actions?

By the emergency conditions created by the war. He was reminiscent of Thomas Jefferson, who while president waged undeclared war against various North African pirates.

Who are some presidents that hadn't served national office before they became president?

Carter, Reagan, Clinton, and W. Bush.

What happened with the end of Jackson's 2nd term?

Congress quickly reestablished its power. Except for the wartime presidency of Lincoln and brief flashes of presidential power under Polk and Cleveland, the presidency for 100 years was the subordinate branch of the national government. Of the 8 presidents who succeeded Jackson, two (Harrison and Taylor) died in office, and none of the others served more than one term. This was the era of "no-name" presidents.

Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon had all been in...

Congress.

What was a big problem among the Framers during the Convention?

Defining the chief executive. The delegates feared anarchy as much as monarchy.

Which president was the first to be given a pension on his retirement?

Eisenhower.

Which presidents have had success in leading a Congress of their same party?

FDR and Johnson only had brief success. For FDR, most of that success was confined to his first term or to wartime.

True or False. An American president has more ability to decide what laws get passed than does a British prime minister.

False. An American president has less ability. The only cure for that weakness is to either change the Constitution so that our government resembles the parliamentary system, or always to vote into office members of Congress who agree with the president on policy issues.

What are wrong with these complaints?

First, it is not clear that divided government produces a gridlock any worse than that which exists with a unified government. Second, it's not clear if gridlock is a bad thing for the country.

How many countries have some degree of party competition?

Five dozen, therefore they also have some measure of free choice for voters. Only 16 countries have a directly elected president, 13 of these nations are in North and South America.

During the Framers' time, what event had just recently occurred?

France had undergone a bloody revolution, England had beheaded a king, and in Poland the ruler was elected by a manifestly corrupt process open to intrigue.

Clinton and George W. Bush both served as...

Governors.

Why is a gridlock the opposite of direct democracy?

Gridlock causes delays, intensifies deliberations, forces compromises, and requires the creation of broad-based coalitions to support most new policies. In a direct democracy, what the people want on some issue becomes law with as little fuss and bother as possible.

How did Washington set a precedent for future presidents?

He firmly limited himself to two terms in office. No president served more until FDR.

What was Cleveland like?

He had a strong personality, but although he tried, he wasn't able to do much more than veto bills that he didn't like. He cast 414 vetoes, more than any other president until FDR. Most of his vetoes went to bills to confer special pensions on Civil War veterans.

What did Lincoln do as president during the Civil War?

He made unprecedented use of the vague gift of powers in Article II of the Constitution, especially those that he felt were "implied" or "inherent" in the phrase "take care that the laws be faithfully executed" and in the express authorization for him to act as commander in chief. Without congressional approval, Lincoln raised an army, spent money, blockaded southern ports, temporarily suspended the writ of habeas corpus, and issued the Emancipation Proclamation to free the slaves.

Describe David Mayhew's study.

He studied 267 important laws enacted between 1946 and 1990. He found that those laws were as likely to be passed when there was a unified government as when there was a divided one.

How did Jackson use the powers of his office as no one before him had?

He vetoed 12 acts of Congress, more than all of his predecessors combined and more than any subsequent president until Andrew Johnson, 30 years later. His vetoes weren't on constitutional grounds, but on policy ones. He saw himself as the "Tribune of the People". He didn't initiate many new policies, but he struck out against some he didn't like. He did this when the size of the electorate was increasing and new states had entered the Union (24 states in total).

What were Jackson's views?

He was opposed to a large and powerful federal government and wished to return to the agrarian simplicities of Jefferson's time. But he was a believer in a strong and independent presidency.

How did George H.W. Bush have alot of executive experience in Washington?

He was vice-president, director of the CIA, and representative to China.

What did Hamilton want?

In a 5-hour speech he called for something like an elective monarchy, kind of like Britain. But no one really paid attention to his plan. (Or, at first, Wilson's suggestion of a single, elected president).

How is the appointment of offices in the executive branch different in a parliamentary system and a presidential system?

In a presidential system, no sitting member of Congress can hold office in the executive branch. The persons chosen by a prime minister to be in the cabinet are almost always members of parliament.

How was the establishing the legitimacy of the presidency made easier?

In the early years, the national government had relatively little to do. It had to establish a 2nd currency and settle debt accrued during the Revolution. The Treasury Department became the principal federal office. Relations with England and France were important (and difficult) but otherwise government took little time and few resources.

What does a divided government mean?

It means cooperation between the two branches, which is hard to achieve under the best of circumstances. Cooperation is further reduced by partisan bickering.

What legacy of Jackson continued well into the 1900s?

It was an intensely partisan era. Public opinion was closely divided. In 9 of the 17 presidential elections between the end of Jackson's term in 1837 and Teddy Roosevelt's election in 1904, the winning candidate received less than half the popular vote. Only two candidates, Lincoln and Grant, received more than 55% of the popular vote.

What was the most frequent concern about the presidency in 1787?

It was over the possibility of presidential reelection. Americans were sufficiently suspicious of human nature and sufficiently experienced in the arts of mischievous government to believe that a president would arrange to stay in office in perpetuity by resorting to bribery, intrigue, and force. This could happen every time the presidential election was thrown into the House because no candidate had received a majority of the votes in the electoral college. Most people expected this to happen often.

What was the first problem about the president's term of office?

It was to establish the legitimacy of the presidency itself. To ensure public acceptance of the office, its incumbent, and its powers and to establish an orderly transfer of power from one incumbent to the next.

What powerful figures walked the political stage at a time when bitter sectional conflicts over slavery and commercial policies were beginning to split the country?

Jackson in the White House and Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John Calhoun in Congress.

What are some examples of unified governments not turning out so unified?

Johnson couldn't get many Democratic members of Congress to support his war policy in Vietnam. Carter couldn't get the Democratic Senate to ratify his strategic arms limitation treaty. Clinton couldn't get the Democratic Congress to go along with his policy on gays in the military or his health proposals. When the heavily revised budget passed, it was by just one vote.

Who are the only people that win in gridlocks?

Journalists and lobbyists.

How did the electoral college plan meet every test?

Large states would have their say, but small states would be protected by having a minimum of three electoral votes no matter how small their population. Together, the small states could wield considerable influence in the House, where it was expected most presidential elections would be decided.

22nd Amendment

Limited all presidents to two terms.

During the long period of congressional dominance of the national government, which president broke new ground, and why was this unexpected?

Lincoln broke new ground for presidential power. He was elected in 1860, as a minority president, receiving less than 40% of the popular vote. He had been a member of the Whig party, which stood for limiting presidential power. He'd opposed America's entry into the Mexican War and had been critical of Jackson's use of executive authority.

How did Gouverneur Morris put the problem of the presidency?

Make him too weak: the Legislature will usurp his powers. Make him too strong: he will usurp on the Legislature.

Is there a nation in Europe with a purely presidential political system?

No. France combines a directly elected president with a prime minister and parliament.

Did Jackson shrink from conflict with Congress?

No. There was tension between the two branches that was intended by the Framers.

In the past when would the presidency become powerful?

Only during a national crisis (wars) or because of an extraordinary personality (Jackson, Teddy, Wilson). However since the 1930s, the presidency has been powerful no matter who occupied the office and whether or not there was a crisis. Because the government now plays such an active role in our national life, the president is the natural focus of attention and the titular head of a huge federal administrative system.

Of the 15 heads of cabinet-level departments in the first W. Bush administration...

Only four had been members of Congress.

Why was hostility to party (faction) unrealistic?

Parties are as natural to democracy as churches are to religion.

Why did Wilson's idea win?

People believed that the governing of a large nation threatened by foreign enemies required a single president with significant powers. Also, everyone assumed that Washington would be the first president and confidence in him-and his sense of self-restraint- was widely shared.

Why do some people talk about the U.S. having an imperial presidency?

Presidents Kennedy and Johnson sent American troops to Vietnam, H. Bush sent them to Saudi Arabia, Clinton sent them to Kosovo, all without war being declared by Congress. Clinton ordered our air force to bomb parts of the old Yugoslavia despite the fact that the House of Reps. had rejected a resolution that would have authorized the bombing. Nixon imposed wage and price controls on the country. Between them, Carter and Reagan selected most of the federal judges now on the bench. W. Bush created military tribunals to try captured terrorists and persuaded Congress to toughen antiterrorist laws.

Why do some scholars believe that voters split tickets deliberately?

So they can create a divided government and thus magnify the effects of the checks and balances built into our system. But the evidence supporting this belief isn't conclusive.

What were people worried about in 1787-1789?

Some Americans suspected that the president, by being able to command the state militia, would use the militia to overpower state governments. Some worried that if the president were allowed to share treaty-making power with the Senate, he would be "directed by minions and favorites" and become a "tool of the Senate."

How can winning an election become easier?

Sometimes winning is easier if you can show the voters that you aren't part of "the mess in Washington". However, prime ministers are selected from among people already in parliament, so they are always insiders.

Why do the White House and Congress often work at cross-purposes, even when one party controls both of them?

The U.S. Constitution created a system of separate branches sharing powers. The founding fathers expected there would be conflict between the branches.

What is the democratic alternative for a directly elected president and which countries have it?

The alternative is for the chief executive to be a prime minister, chosen by and responsible to the parliament. This system prevails in most Western European countries and Israel and Japan.

What were some questions facing the delegates when deciding who would vote in presidential elections?

The emerging nation was diverse and large. It was unlikely that every citizen would be familiar enough with the candidates to cast an informed vote. A direct popular election would give inordinate weight to the large, populous states, and no plan with that outcome had any chance of adoption by the smaller states.

What did Edmund Randolph of Virginia think the presidency would become?

The foetus of monarchy.

Gridlock

The inability of the government to act because rival parties control different parts of the government.

Where did our popular conception of the president as a central figure of national government, devising a legislative program and commanding a large staff of advisers come from?

The modern era and the enlarged role of government.

Electoral College.

The people chosen to cast each state's votes in a presidential election. When it was invented, each state could select electors in whatever manner it wished. Then the electors would meet in each state capital and vote for president and vice-president.

Why do these concerns now seem foolish?

The power over the militia has had little significance. The election has gone to the House twice, in 1800 and 1824. Though the Senate dominated the presidency off and on during the 2nd half of the 1800s, it hasn't done so recently.

What have been the actual sources of the expansion of presidential power?

The president's role in foreign affairs, his ability to shape public opinion, his position as head of the executive branch, and his claims to have certain "inherent" powers by virtue of his office.

Why do some people call the U.S. president a "pitiful, helpless giant?"

The president, compared to prime ministers of other democratic nations, is one of the weakest chief executives. Carter signed an arms-limitation treaty with the Soviets, but the Senate wouldn't ratify it. Reagan wasn't allowed to test antisatellite weapons, and in 1986 Congress rejected his budget before the ink was dry. Clinton's health care plan was ignored, and the House voted to impeach him. Subordinates who are supposed to be loyal to the president leak his views to the press and undercut his programs before Congress.

Describe a parliamentary system.

The prime minister is the chief executive. The prime minister is chosen by the legislature, and he in turn selects the other ministers from the members of parliament. If parliament has only two major parties, the ministers will usually be chosen from the majority party. If there are many parties (Israel) several parties may participate in a coalition cabinet. The prime minister remains in power as long as his party has a majority of seats in the legislature or as long as the coalition he has assembled holds together. Voters choose who is to be a member of parliament- usually by voting for one or another party- but can't choose the chief executive officer.

What two items were of profound importance and were debated at great length at the Convention?

The relations between the president and Congress and the manner in which the president is elected. The first plan was for Congress to elect the president. But if that were done, Congress could dominate an honest or lazy president, while a corrupt or scheming president might dominate Congress.

What have been subjects of continuing dispute?

The relations between the president and Congress. The pattern of relationships we see today is the result of an evolutionary process that has extended over more than two centuries.

What IS important?

The relative power of the president and Congress.

What are some of the powers that were given to the president?

The right to make treaties and the right to appoint lesser officials, both of which were originally reserved for the Senate.

Unified Government

The same party controls the White House and both houses of Congress.

What do we take for granted about transfer of power from one incumbent to the next?

Their swiftness and nonviolence. When W. Bush was inaugurated, Clinton quietly left. In other nations, this is unusual. Usually, a new chief executive comes to power with the aid of military force or as a result of political intrigue. His predecessor often leaves office disgraced, exiled, or dead.

Why were the real sources of the expansion of presidential power hardly predictable in 1787?

There had never been an example of an American-style presidency. It was a unique and unprecedented institution.

What have scholars concluded about unified and divided governments?

They concluded that divided governments do just about as well as unified ones in passing important laws, conducting important investigations, and ratifying significant treaties.

What did the Framers not foresee?

They did not foresee the role that political parties would play in producing nationwide support for a slate of national candidates.

What did Framers expect the electors in the electoral college to do?

They expected the electoral college would lead to each state's electors' voting for a favorite son, and thus no candidate would win a majority of the popular vote. Then the House would make the choice.

During the Convention, what were state constitutions like?

They gave most, if not all, power to the legislatures. In 8 states the governor was chosen by the legislature. In 10 states the governor could not serve more than a year. Only in NY, CT, and MA did governors have much power or could serve for any length of time.

Why do Americans say they don't like divided government?

They think divided government produces partisan bickering, political paralysis, and policy gridlock.

Why were the first men who served as president prominent in the nation?

They were all active either in the movement for independence or in the Founding (or both). Of the first 5 presidents, 4 (except Adams) served 2 full terms. Washington and Monroe weren't opposed. The first administration had at the highest levels the leading spokesmen for all of the major viewpoints: Hamilton was Washington's secretary of treasury (sympathetic to urban commercial interests, and Jefferson was secretary of state (rural, small-town and farming views)

What does our book compare political gridlocks to?

Traffic gridlocks.

True or False. The popular conception of the president as the central figure of national government doesn't give a true impression of present-day legislative-executive relations.

True.

True or False. Whether a nation has a presidential or a parliamentary system makes a big difference in the identity and powers of the chief executive.

True.

True or False. Presidents have no guaranteed majority in the legislation.

True. A president's party often doesn't have a congressional majority, instead Congress is often controlled by the opposite party, creating a divided government. A prime minister's party (or coalition) always has a majority in parliament.

Why do divided governments produce about as much important legislation as unified ones?

Unified government is a myth. Just because the Republicans control both the presidency and Congress doesn't mean the president and the senators and representatives will see things the same way. Republicans are divided between conservatives and liberals and disagree about policy almost as much as Democrats and Republicans. The Constitution ensures that the president and Congress will be rivals for power, and thus rivals in policy-making.

Who usually gets appointed to cabinet positions in a presidential system of government?

Usually presidents choose close, personal friends or campaign aides, representatives of important constituencies (farmers, black, women), experts on various policy issues, or all four.

Nixon was...

Vice-president.

What event ended the responsibility of the Senate to "advise" the president?

Washington appeared before the Senate to ask its advice on a proposed treaty with some Indian tribes. He got none. He was told that Senate would like to consider the matter in private. He said that he would be "damned if he ever went there again." He never did.

How many vetoes did the first few presidents cast?

Washington cast two. Jefferson and Adams cast none.

How was the presidency kept modest?

Washington hadn't sought the office and didn't relish the exercise of its then modest powers. He traveled widely so that as many people as possible could see their new president. His efforts to establish a semiregal court etiquette were put down. Congress decided that not until after a president was dead would he appear on money.

What did people used to think about political parties?

Washington spoke against them. There was a stigma attached to them: many people believed that it was wrong to take advantage of divisions in the country, to organize them deliberately to acquire political office, or to make legislation depend upon party advantage.

What are we accustomed to thinking about the presidency today, and why is this wrong?

We are accustomed to thinking that the president formulates a legislative program to which Congress then responds. But until the 1930s, the opposite was true. Congress ignored the initiatives of Cleveland, Hayes, Arthur, and Coolidge. In 1913, Wilson was the first since John Adams to personally deliver the State of the Union address. Wilson was also one of the first to develop and argue for a presidential legislative program.

Describe the differences between how President W. Bush and prime minister Tony Blair managed the war in Iraq.

When Bush decided to fight, he had to "cajole" Congress (controlled by his own party), to support him. When Blair decided to fight, there couldn't be any meaningful political resistance in parliament. When public opinion turn against Bush, he continued to fight because he couldn't be removed from office. When public opinion turned against Blair, he announced he would resign and turn his job over to another person in his party.

What are some examples of a President belonging to the same party of the majority in Congress, but not having much luck getting his proposals passed?

When JFK was president, the Democrats held a big majority in both the House and Senate. But he couldn't get Congress to approve his proposals to enlarge civil rights, supply federal aid for school construction, create a Department of Urban Affairs and Housing, or establish a program of subsidized medical care for the elderly. During JFK's last year, Congress passed 1/4 of his proposals. When Carter had a majority of Democrats, many of his most important proposals were defeated or greatly modified.

What is the only time when there is really a unified government?

When not just the same party is in effective control of both branches of government, but when the same ideological wing of that party is in effective control of both branches. This happened in 1933 when FDR was president and change-oriented Democrats controlled Congress, and in 1965 when Johnson was president and liberal Democrats dominated Congress.

Are both the "imperial presidency" and "pitiful, helpless giant" right terms to describe the U.S. president?

Yes. The American presidency is a unique office, with elements of great strength and profound weakness built into it by its constitutional origins.

Gridlock is...

a necessary consequence of a system of representative democracy.

Once the manner of electing the president was settled...

the question of his powers was much easier to decide. If you believe that the procedures are fair and balanced, then you are more confident in assigning larger powers to the president within the system.

In a typical presidential election, about 1/4 of all voters will...

vote for one party's candidate for president and the other party's candidate for Congress. This results in 1/4 of all congressional districts being represented in the House by a person who does not belong to the party of the president who carried the district.