Ch. 14 Reformations and Religious Wars

• Geneva

"a city that was a church"; a model of a Christian community for 16th century Protestant reformers. In order to understand Calvin's Geneva, it is necessary to understand Calvin's ideas.

• Katharina von Bora

(1499-1532) A former nun who married Luther.

• King Francis I

(r. 1515-1547) he increased taxes and engaged in heavy borrowing to help pay for the war. He tried two new devices to raise revenue: the sale of public offices and a treaty with the papacy. The former proved to be only a temporary source of money.

• Charles V

21year old emperor. He held his first diet (assembly of the Estates of the Empire) in Worms.

• French Catholics vs Calvinist

Both Calvinists and Catholics believed that the other's books polluted the community. Preachers incited violence, and ceremonies such as baptisms, marriages, and funerals triggered it.

• Revolts during 16th century

Broke out near the Swiss frontier and then swept through Swabia, Thuringia, the Rhineland, and Saxony. The Crowd's slogans came from Protestant writings; they were invoked in an effort to secure social and economic justice.

• Spiritual Exercises

By Loyola. It was intended for study during a four week period of retreat. It directed the individual imagination and will to the reform of life and an new spiritual piety.

• Church of Scotland

Calvinism found a ready audience in Scotland. Political authority was the decisive influence in reform. The monarchy was weak and factions of independent nobles competed for power. It was strictly Calvinist in doctrine, adopted a simple service of worship, and laid great emphasis on preaching. The Presbyterian Church of Scotland was a national, or state, church, and many of its members maintained close relations with English Puritans.

• Catholics views on Protestants

Calvinists and Lutherans could be reconverted.

• Benefices for Italian officials

England, Spain, and Germany. Revenues from countries paid the Italian priests' salaries, provoking charges of absenteeism and nationalistic resentment.

• Huguenots

French Calvinists. Most lived in major cities, such as Paris, Lyons, and Rouen. When Henry II died, 1/10 of the population became Calvinist .

• Charles V after war

He abdicated in 1556 and moved to a monastery, transferring power over his Spanish and Netherlandish holdings to his son Philip and his imperial power to his brother Ferdinand.

• Charles V and the Augsburg Confession

He rejected it and ordered all Protestants to return to the Catholic Church and give up any confiscated church property.

• Result of Charles V's threat to Protestants

It backfired, and Protestant territories in the empire - mostly north German princes and south German cities - formed a military alliance.

• Ireland and Religion

Loyalty to the Catholic Church was strong. Ireland was claimed by English kings since the 12th century, but the English had firm control of only the area around Dublin, known as the Pale. In 1536, on orders from London, The Irish Parliament, which represented only the English landlords and the people of the Pale, approved the English laws severing the church from Rome. The Church of Ireland was established on the English patter, and the ruling class adopted the new reformed faith. Most of the Irish people remained Roman Catholic, adding religious antagonism to the ethnic hostility that had been a feature of English policy toward Ireland for centuries. English repressed Irish opposition to the Reformation. Catholic property was confiscated and sold.

• Behavior of Priests in the early 16th century

Many priests, particularly those ministering to country people, had concubines. Neglect of the rule of celibacy was common. Clerical drunkenness, gambling and indulgence in fancy dress were frequent charges. Bishops casually enforced regulations regarding education of priests. Result: standards for ordination were low. Priests could barely read and write.

• Response to Luther after Leipzig

Papacy responded with a letter condemning some of Luther's propositions, but Luther publicly burned it. By January 3, 1521, when the excommunication was to become final, the controversy involved more than theological issues. The papal legate wrote, "All Germany is in Revolution. Nine-tenths shout 'Luther' as their war cry; and the other tenth cares nothing about Luther, and cries 'Death to the court of Rome.'"

• Ritual of the Eucharist

Protestants didn't agree on this; Luther believed that Christ is really present in the consecrate bread and wine, but this is the result of God's mystery. Zwingli understood the Lord's Supper as a memorial, in which Christ was not present in the bread and wine, but in spirit among the faithful.

• Michael Servetus

Spanish humanist in the 1550's who gained international notoriety for his publications denying the Christian dogma of the Trinity. He had been arrested by the Inquisition but escaped to Geneva, where he was rearrested. At his trial, he held to his belief that there is no scriptural basis for the Trinity and rejected child baptism and insisted that a person under 20 can't commit a mortal sin. He was burned at the stake.

• Kingdom of Denmark-Norway and Reformation

Under King Christian III (r. 1536-1559). The first area outside the empire to officially accept the Reformation. 1530's the king broke with the Catholic Church. The process went smoothly.

• Effect of the Inquisition

Within Papal States, it destroyed heresy. Outside the papal territories, the influence was slight. In Venice, a major publishing center, the Index had no influence on scholarly research in nonreligious areas such as law, classical literature, and mathematics.

• Protestants' ideas on women

Women were to be subject to men (medieval scholastic idea), because of Eve's primary responsibility for the Fall. Women were advised to be cheerful rather than grudging in their obedience, for in doing so, they demonstrated their willingness to follow god's plan.

• German Peasants' War of 1525

The most far-reaching political and social program that groups linked Protestant ideas to.

• Henry removing the English church from papal jurisdiction

Rome appeared to be thwarting Henry's matrimonial plans. He used Parliament to legalize the Reformation in England.

• Ursuline order of nuns

founded by Angela Merici. It attained prestige for the education of women. Angela Merci worked for many years among the poor, sick and uneducated around Brescia in Northern Italy. In 1535, she established the Ursuline order to combat heresy through Christian education. Ursulines sought to re-Christianize society by training future wives and mothers. It was very hard to gain papl approval because of the claustration of religious women that the Council of Trent placed great stress on. Official recognition = 1565. Uruslines rapidly spread to France and the New World. Their schools in North America provided superior education for young women and inculcated the spiritual ideals of the Catholic Reformation.

• Society of Jesus, Jesuits

founded by Ignatius Loyola. It played a powerful international role in resisting the spread of Protestantism, converting Asians and Latin American Indians to Catholicism, and spreading Christian education. The first Jesuits, recruited primarily from the wealthy merchant and professional classes, saw the Reformation as a pastoral problem, its causes and cures were related to the people's spiritual condition. The Jesuits goal was to help souls. It developed into a highly centralized, tightly knit organization. Candidates underwent a two year novitiate. Professed members vowed "special obedience to the sovereign pontiff regarding missions." Mobility was the defining characteristic of a Jesuit. Jesuits were very modern in this respect. They achieved success for the papacy and the reformed Catholic Church. Jesuit schools adopted modern humanist curricula and methods. They educated children of the poor first and soon educated sons of nobility.

• Johann Tetzel

friar from the Dominican order hired Albert to run the indulgence sale. He mounted an advertising blitz. He was a very effective salesman, hawking indulgences in a way that promised full forgiveness for sins or the end of time in purgatory for one's friends and relatives. Slogan: "As soon as coin in coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs"

• Impact of Protestants' ideas on divorce

had a dramatic change in marital law, but had a less than dramatic impact. Marriage was the cornerstone of society socially and economically, so divorce was a desperate last resort.

• Wives of Protestant reformers

had to create a new and respectable role for themselves - pastor's wife - to overcome being viewed as a new type of concubine. They were living demonstrations of their husband's convictions about the superiority of marriage to celibacy, and they were expected to be models of wifely obedience and Christian charity.

• Misogyny

hatred of women. Demonologists emphasized women's powerful sex desire, which could only be satisfied by a demon. Most people saw women as weak and so more likely to give in to any kind of offer by the Devil. Women were associated with nature, disorder, and the body, all of which were linked with the demonic. Women's lack of power in society and gender norms about the use of violence = scolding, cursing. Women had more contact with areas of life in which bad things happened unexpectedly.

• Henry, theologically

he retained such traditional catholic practices and doctrines as confession, clerical celibacy, and transubstantiation. Henry approved the selection of men of Protestant sympathies as tutors for his son.

• Northern Europe clerical educational standards

improved in the early sixteenth century.

• Protestantism and France

in 1518, his ideas first appeared and attracted some attention. After the publication of Calvin's Institutes in 1536, many French people were attracted to the "reformed religion," as Calvinism was called. Calvin wrote in French rather than Latin, so his ideas gained wide circulation. Calvinists were usually reform-minded members of the Catholic clergy, the middle classes, and artisan groups. French nobles frequently adopted the reformed religion as a religious cloak for their independence.

• Peace of Augsburg

in 1555, Charles agreed to the Peace of Augsburg, which, in accepting the status quo, officially recognized Lutheranism. The political authority in each territory was permitted to decide whether the territory would be Catholic or Lutheran.

• 16th century Europeans and Calvin's Geneva

"the most perfect school of Christ since the days of the Apostles." Religious refugees visited the city. The Reformed church of Calvin served as the model for the Presbyterian church in Scotland, the Huguenot church in France, and the Puritan churches in England and New England.

• Martin Luther

(1483-1546). German University professor in the early 16th century that struggled to make dramatic changes to the church. He was an Augustinian friar, and Augustinian friars were a mendicant order whose members often preached, taught, and assisted the poor. Martin Luther was born at Eisleben in Saxony and was the second son of a copper miner. He went to the University of Erfurt and earned a master's degree at the age of 21. He was intended to study law and have a legal career, but he was frightened during a thunderstorm and vowed to become a friar. He entered the monastery of Augustinian friars at Erfurt in 1505 and was ordained in 1507 and earned a doctorate of theology. From 1512 to his death, he served as professor of the Scriptures at the University of Wittenberg. His doctorate led to his professorship, and his professorship conferred on him the authority to teach. He was conscientious, and his scrupulous observance of religious routine gave him only temporary relief from anxieties about sin and his ability to meet God's demands. He soon doubted the value of monastic life. His confessor John Staupitz directed him to study St. Paul's letters in the New Testament. His understanding summarized: "faith alone, grace alone, scripture alone"

• Anna Reinhart

(1491-1538): A Zurich widow.

• Ignatius Loyola

(1491-1556) A former Spanish soldier. While recuperating from a battle wound, he studied a life of Christ and other religious books and gave up his military career to become a soldier of Christ. He wrote Spiritual Exercises after a year of seclusion, prayter, and personal mortification. A man of considerable personal magnetism. He gathered a group of 6 compainions and in 1540 secured papal approval of the new Society of Jesus. He studied in Salamanca and Paris. He had a gift for leadership that consisted in spotting talent.

• Charles V

(1500-1558) grandson of Maximilian. He fell heir to a vast conglomeration of territories. Through a series of accidents, Charles inherited Spain from his mother, her New World possessions, and the Spanish dominions in Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia. From his father he inherited the Habsburg lands in Austria, S. Germany, the Low Countries, and Franche-Comte in east-central France. He would rule about half of Europe. His inheritance was an incredibly diverse collection of states and people, each governed in a different manner and held together only by the person of the emperor. Charles was convinced that it was his duty to maintain the political and religious unity of Western Christendom because of his Italian adviser, Gattinara.

• John Knox

(1505-1572) one man who dominated the movement for reform in Scotland. A dour, single-minded, and fearless man with a reputation as a passionate preacher, set to work reforming the church. He had studied and worked with Calvin and was determined to structure the Scottish church after the model of Geneva. He persuaded the Scottish Parliament, which was dominated by reform-minded barons, to enact legislation ending papal authority, and mass was abolished. He established the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, so named because minsters governed it.

• Stanislaud Hosius

(1505-1579): He attended the Council of Trent. Under him, a systematic Counter-Reformation gained momentum. He pressed for reform within the Catholic Church, held provincial synods, and published a comprehensive and clear statement of Roman Catholic faith and morals. Jesuits complemented his work by establishing schools for the sons of the szlachta.

• John Calvin

(1509-1564) He born in Noyon in NW France. While Luther inadvertently launched the Protestant Reformation, Calvin had a greater impact on future generations. His theological writings profoundly influenced the social thought and attitudes of Europeans and English-speaking peoples all over the world, especially in Canada and the United States. He studied law, which had a decisive impact on his mind and later thought. He converted to Protestantism in 1533. Calvin believed that God had called him to reform the church. He accepted an invitation to assist in the reformation of Geneva. In 1541, Calvin began to work to establish a Christian society ruled by God through civil magistrates and reformed ministers.

• The Supremacy Act

(1534) declared the king the supreme head of the Church of England

• Pope Paul III

(1534-1549) He appointed reform-minded cardinals, abbots, and bishops who improved education for the clergy, tried to enforce moral standards among them, and worked on correcting the most glaring abuses. Paul III and his successors supported the establishment of new religious orders that preached to the common people, the opening of seminaries for training priests, the end of the selling of church offices, and stricter control of clerical life. In 1542 he established the Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office, with jurisdiction over the Roman Inquisition, a powerful instrument of the Catholic Reformation.

• The Act in Restraint of Appeals

(1553) declared the king to be the supreme sovereign in England and forbade judicial appeals to the papacy, thus establishing the Crown as the highest legal authority in the land.

• Book of Common Order

(1564) a book by Knox. It became the liturgical directory for the church.

• Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)

(r. 1589-1610) a politique. He knew that the majority of the French were Catholics. He converted to Catholicism as a sacrifice to save France politically. His reign and the Edict of Nantes prepared the way for French absolutism in the 1th century by helping restore internal peace in France.

• Charles V

(r. 1519-1556) He inherited the 17 provinces that compose present-day Belgium and the Netherlands. In 1556, he abdicated, dividing his territories between his brother Ferdinand, who received Austria and the Holy Roman Empire, and his son Philip, who inherited Spain, the Low Countries, Milan and the kingdom of Sicily, and the Spanish possessions in the Americas. Philip grew up in Spain and didn't understand the Netherlands.

• Edward VI

(r. 1547-1553) Henry's sickly son. In his reign, strongly Protestant ideas exerted a significant influence on the religious life of the country.

• Mary Tudor

(r. 1553-1558) Her reign witnessed a sharp move back to Catholicism. She rescinded the Reformation legislation of her father's reign and restored Roman Catholicism. Her marriage to her cousin Philip of Spain proved highly unpopular in England, and her execution of several hundred Protestants further alienated her subjects. During her reign, many Protestants fled to the continent.

• Elizabeth

(r. 1558-1603) she was raised a Protestant, but at the start of her reign sharp differences existed in England. One of the shrewdest politicians in English history. She chose a middle course between Catholic and Puritan extremes. She insisted on dignity in church services and political order in the land. She required her subjects to attend church or risk a fine, but did not care what they actually believed as long as they kept quiet about it. She required officials, clergy, and nobles to swear allegiance to her as the "supreme governor of the Church of England." She chose governor instead of head to provide a loophole for English Catholics to remain loyal to her without denying the primacy of the pope.

• King James V and his Daughter Mary, Queen of Scots

(r. 1560-1567) staunch Catholics and close allies of Catholic France, opposed reform.

• Papal conflict with German emperor Frederick II

13th century. Followed by the Babylonian Captivity and then the Great schism. Badly damaged the prestige of Church leaders. Humanists denounced the prestige of church.

• Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

1500 united. A king, senate, and diet governed, but the two territories retained separate officials, judicial systems, armies, and forms of citizenship. In the 15th century, rulers had granted the Polish nobility extensive rights. The monarchy was weak and had to cooperate with the szlachta. Poland-Lithuania = the largest European polity. Population = 7.5 million. Very Rural. Largest cities = Gdansk and Cracow. Small population, but great diversity. Each group spoke its native language, but all educated people knew Latin. 15th century, Italian Renaissance humanism influenced Polish art.

• Charles V

19 year old Habsburg prince who ruled as Charles V. Two years after Luther published the Ninety-five Theses, the electors chose him as emperor. The course of the Reformation was shaped by this election and by the political relationships surrounding it.

• Women and Protestant ideas

A few women took Luther's idea about the priesthood of all believers to heart and wrote religious pamphlets and hymns, but no 16th century Protestants officially allowed women to hold positions of religious authority, though monarchs such as Elizabeth I of England and female territorial rulers of the states of the Holy Roman Empire did determine religious practices.

• Difference between religious opponents and witches

Although they are both regarded as deluded by the Devil, heretics were rarely accused of witchcraft. An incorrect doctrine didn't mean witchcraft.

• Elizabeth

Anne's daughter; Parliament proclaimed her illigetimate.

• Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre

August 24, 1572. Margaret of Valois was getting married to Protestant Henry of Navarre in order to reconcile Catholics and Huguenots. The Huguenot wedding guests in Paris were massacred and other Protestants were slaughtered by mobs. This led to a war that dragged on for 15 years. Agriculture was destroyed, commercial life declined, and starvation and death hunted the land.

• Battle of Mohacs

August 26, 1526. A military event that had profound consequences for both the Hungarian state and the Protestant Reformation there. Took place on the plain of Mohacs in S. Hungary. The Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent inflicted a defeat on the Hungarians, killing King Louis II, many of the magnates, and more than 16,000 soldiers.

• Legal Changes and witch trials

Before, a suspect knew the accusers and the charges they brought, and accusers could be liable for trial if the charges were not proven. Later, legal authorities brought the case. This change = more accusations. Inquisitorial procedure involved intense questioning of the suspect, often with torture. Lawyers believed no with could act alone.

• English Monasteries

Between 1535 and 1539, under Thomas Cromwell's influence, Henry dissolved the English monasteries because he wanted their wealth. The king ended 900 years of English monastic life. The dissolution of the monasteries didn't achieve a more equitable distribution of land and wealth.

• Early Reformation

Calls for reform came in early 16th century Europe. From educated laypeople, from villagers and artisans, and from church officials. Dissatisfaction explains why the ideas of a prof. from a German university found a ready audience. Much of central Europe and Scandinavia had broken with the Catholic Church within the 1st decade of his first publishing his ideas.

• Calvinism and Protestantism

Calvinism became the compelling force in international Protestantism. The Calvinist ethic of the "calling" dignified all work with a religious aspect. This doctrine encouraged an aggressive, vigorous activism. These factors, together with the social and economic applications of Calvin's theology, made Calvinism the most dynamic force in 16th and 17th Protestantism.

• Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon

Catherine originally married Henry's late older brother Arthur. Marriage to a brother's widow went against canon law, and Henry had to obtain a special papal dispensation to marry Catherine. They neither hated nor loved one another. They produced only one living heir, Mary. Henry decided that God was showing his displeasure with the marriage, and he appealed to the pope to have the marriage annulled.

• Imperial Diet in 1530

Charles V called it trying to halt the spread of religious division and they met at Augsburg.

• Politics in Council of Trent

Charles V opposed discussions on any matter that might further alienate his Lutheran subjects, fearing the loss of imperial territory to Lutheran princes. French kings worked against the reconciliation of Roman Catholicism and Lutheranism. As long as religious issues divided the German states, the empire would be weakened. Portugal, Poland, Hungary, and Ireland sent representatives, but very few German bishops attended.

• Nobility in response to revolt

Crushed the revolt ferociously. 75,000 peasants killed in 1525. ]

• Protestant reformers on marriage

Denied that it was a sacrament. Praised marriage in formal treaties, commentaries on the Book of Genesis, household guides, and wedding sermons. Stressed that it had been ordained by God when he presented Eve to Adam, served as a "remedy" for the unavoidable sin of lust, provided a site for the pious rearing of the next generation of God-fearing Christians, and offered husbands and wives companionship and consolation. A proper marriage reflected both the spiritual equality of men and women and the proper social hierarchy of husbandly authority and wifely obedience.

• Earliest territories to accept Reformation

Denmark and Norway

• Praise of Folly

Erasmus. It condemned the superstitions of the parish clergy and the excessive rituals of the monks. Many ordinary people agreed.

• Spread of Luther's ideas in Eastern Europe

First to German-speaking Baltic towns, then to the Univ. of Carcow, where his works were translated. Ideas had two major obstacles: King Sigismund I banned Luther's teachings in Poland, and strong anti-German feeling among Poles = Lutheranism would have limited success outside of Germanized towns.

• Four basic theological issues of the Protestant Reformation

First, how is a person to be saved? Protestants held that salvation comes by faith alone. Second, where does religious authority reside? Authority rests in the Word of God as revealed in the Bible alone and as interpreted by an individual's conscience. Third, what is the church? Church is a spiritual priesthood of all believers, an invisible fellowship. Church consists of the entire community of Christian believers. Fourth, what is the highest form of Christian life? Luther argued that all vocations, whether ecclesiastical or secular, have equal merit and that every person should serve God in his or her individual calling. Vows of celibacy went against both human nature and God's commandment.

• Marriage of Maximilian and Mary

Frederick III arranged for his son Maximilian to marry Mary of Burgundy in 1477; she inherited the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the County of Burgundy in what is now eastern France. Because of this union Habsburg became an international power. This marriage angered the French who considered Burgundy French territory and inaugurated centuries of conflict. He learned the lessons of marital politics, marrying his son and daughter to the children of Ferdinand and Isabella.

• Geneva's Consistory and punishment

Geneva's Consistory was more severe with regulating citizen's conduct than any other municipal government in Europe. It did not make any distinction between what we would consider crimes against society and simple unchristian conduct. Absence from sermons, criticism of ministers, dancing, card playing, family quarrels, and heavy drinking were all punished. Serious crimes and heresy were handled by the civil authorities which sometimes used torture to extract confessions. (with approval from the Consistory) Between 1542 and 1546 76 persons were banished from Geneva and 58 executed for heresy, adultery, blasphemy, and witchcraft.

• Luther and Germany

Germany wasn't a nation, but people did have an understanding of being German because of their language and traditions. Luther frequently used the phrase "we Germans" in his attacks on the papacy. Luther's appeal to German patriotism gained him strong support, and national feeling influenced many rulers otherwise confused by or indifferent to the complexities of religious issues.

• Calvin and Genevans

He held them to a high standard of morality. He had two remarkable assets: complete mastery of the Scriptures and exceptional eloquence. God's laws and man's were enforced in Geneva. Calvin's powerful sermons delivered the Word of God and thereby monopolized the strongest contemporary means of communication: preaching. Calvin's sermons and his Catechism gave a whole generation of Genevans thorough instruction in the reformed religion.

• Charles V and the War

He realized that he was fighting not only for religious unity, but also for a more unified state against territorial rulers who wanted to maintain their independence. He was defending both church and empire.

• Charles V and Religion

He was a vigorous defender of Catholicism. (Reformation led to religious wars.)

• Luther at Leipzig

He was at first ordered to come to Rome, but avoided it because of the political situation in the empire. He engaged in a debate with a representative of the church, Johann Eck in 1519. He denied the authority of the pope and the infallibility of a general council. The Council of Constance had erred when it had condemned Jan Hus.

• Luther on indulgences

He was troubled that ignorant people believed that they had no further need for repentance once they had purchased indulgences. He wrote a letter to Archbishop Albert on the subject and enclosed in Latin "Ninety-five Theses on the Power of Indulgences." His argument was that indulgences undermined the seriousness of the sacrament of penance, competed with the preaching of the Gospel, and downplayed the importance of charity in Christian life. The theses were posted on the door of the church at Wittenberg Castle on October 31, 1517. This was strange because they were in Latin and written for those learned in theology, not for normal churchgoers. By December 1517 they had been translated into German.

• Jane Seymour

Henry's third wife. She gave birth to Henry's first son, but died in childbirth.

• Literate and thoughtful middle classes and Luther

His insistence that everyone should read and reflect on the Scriptures attracted them because Luther appealed to their intelligence. This included many priests and monks, who became clergy in the new Protestant churches.

• Frederick III

Holy Roman emperor and a Habsburg who was the ruler of most of Austria, acquired only a small amount of territory but a great deal of money with his marriage to Princes Eleonore of Portugal in 1452.

• Properties from monks and nuns

Hundreds of properties were sold to the middle and upper classes and proceeds spent on war. The redistribution of land strengthened the upper classes and tied them to the Tudor dynasty.

• Views on Anabaptists

Ideas such as absolute pacifism and the distinction between the Christian community and the state brought down on these people fanatical hatred and bitter persecution.

• Annulment between Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon

It would not have been a problem, but the troops of Emperor Charles V were in Rome and Pope Clement VII was their prisoner. Charles V was against the annulment, because it would have declared his aunt a fornicator and his cousin a bastard. The military situation in Rome led the pope to stall.

• Diet of Worms

Luther is summoned by Charles to appear. Luther said that he does not accept the authority of the Pope or the councils alone and that he will not recant anything.

• Lutheranism and Bohemia

Lutheranism spread rapidly among Germans in Bohemia in the 1520's and 1530's. Many Germans lived near the border of Luther's Saxony. Nobility's identification of Lutheranism with opposition to the Habsburgs contributed to the growth of Protestantism. The forces of the Catholic Reformation promoted a Catholic spiritual revival in Bohemia, and some areas reconverted. This situation would be one of the cuases of the Thirty Years' War.

• Views on Predestination

Many people consider the doctrine of predestination, which dates back to St. Augustine and St. Paul, to be a pessimistic view of the nature of God, who, they feel, revealed himself in the Old and New Testaments as merciful as well as just. Calvinists believed in the redemptive work of Christ and was confident that God had elected him or her. Predestination served as an energizing dynamic, forcing a person to undergo hardships in the constant struggle against evil.

• Protestants on lust

Marriage was the proper remedy. Prostitution was condemned uniformly. Brothels were closed in Protestant cities and harsh punishments were set for prostitution. Selling sex was couched in moral terms. It was a type of "whoredom," a term that included premarital sex, adultery, and other unacceptable sexual activities. Women who sold sex were described in negative terms and regarded "whore" as the worst epithet they could hurl at their theological opponents.

• Protestants' ideas on Men

Men were urged to treat their wives kindly and considerately, but also to enforce their authority, through physical coercion if necessary. Laws set limits on the husband's power to teach a wife obedience.

• Hungary and the Reformation

Merchants from Poland carried the first new about Luther to Hungary in 1521. Hungarian students flocked to Wittenberg. Concern about "the German heresy" by the Catholic hierarchy and among the magnates found expression in a decree of the Hungarin diet in 1523 that "all Lutherans and those favoring them... should have their property confiscated and themselves punished with death as heretics"

• The Reformed papacy

Modest efforts were undertaken, but the idea of reform was closely linked to the idea of a general council representing the church. While the 15th century conciliar attempts to limit papal authority, early 16th century popes resisted calls for a council. The papal bureaucrats warned against a council fearing loss of power, revenue, and prestige.

• Government and witchcraft

Most of the Holy Roman Empire, Switzerland, and parts of France consisted of very small governmental units, which were jealous of each other. Rulers of these small territories saw persecuting witches as a way to demonstrate their piety and concern for order.

• Protestant Iconoclasm

Protestant teachings called the power of sacred images into question, and mobs in many cities took down and smashed statues, stained-glass windows, and paintings. They ridiculed and tested religious images. This was inspired by sermons, but it was iconoclasm, and it was an example of men and women carrying out the Reformation themselves.

• Help from outside the 7 provinces

Queen Elizabeth feared that England would be next in the Spanish invasion, so she sent money and troops. Philip tried to launch an invasion of England, but the Spanish fleet scattered in the English Channel.

• Non Achievements of the Council of Trent

Reconciliation with Protestantism wasn't achieved, nor was reform brought about immediately.

• After Battle of Mohacs

Rival factions elected different kings, and the Hungarian kingdom was divided into 3 parts- Ottoman Turks absorbed the great plains including Buda; the Habsburgs ruled the north and west; and Ottoman-supported Janos Zapolya held eastern Hungary and Transylvania. Turks were indifferent to the religious conflicts of the infidels.

• Scholars and Luther

Scholars have attributed Luther's fame and success to the invention of the printing press. Equally important was Luther's incredible skill with language. His linguistic skill together with his translation of the New Testament into German in 1523 led to the acceptance of his dialect of German as the standard version of German.

• Luther and German rulers

Some German rulers were attracted to Lutheran ideas, but material considerations swayed many others to embrace the new faith. Adoption of Protestantism = the legal confiscation of farmlands, monasteries, and shrines. Duchies, margraviates, free cities, and bishoprics secularized church property, accepted Lutheran Theological doctrines, and adopted simpler services conducted in German. Many political authorities used the religious issue to extend their financial and political power and to enhance their independence from the emperor.

• Support of religious changes in England

Some people were dissatisfied with the church in England, but traditional Catholicism exerted an enormously strong and vigorous hold over the imagination and loyalty of the people. Most clergy and officials accepted Henry's moves, but all did not quietly acquiesce. People rarely "converted" from Catholicism to Protestantism overnight. People responded to an action of the Crown that was played out in their own neighborhood with a combination of resistance, acceptance, cooperation, and collaboration.

• Ulrcih Zwingli

Swiss humanist, priest, and admirer of Erasmus. 1519, he would preach from Erasmus's New Testament. He was convinced that Christian life rested on the Scriptures. He attacked indulgences, the Mass, the institution of monasticism, and clerical celibacy. He remained in Zurich, where he had the strong support of the city authorities.

• Thomas Cranmer

archbishop; simplified the liturgy, invited Protestant theologians to England and prepared the first Book of Common Prayer (1549).

• Effect of Concordat of Bologna and Catholicism in France

The Concordat Of Bologna established Catholicism as the state religion. French rulers possessed control over appointments and had a vested financial interest in Catholicism, so they had no need to revolt.

• Complicated political maneuvering in Europe

The emperor, the pope, France, England, Protestant and Catholic princes and cities in Germany, Scotland, Sweden, Denmark, and even the Turks made and broke alliances, and the Habsburg-Valois rivalry continued to be played out militarily. Various attempts were made to heal the religious split with a church council, but intransigence on both sides made it clear that war was inevitable.

• Indulgence

The church has the authority to grant sinners the remission of the penalties for sin by drawing on the "treasury of merits", which was a collection of all the virtuous acts that Christ, the apostles, and the saints had done during their lives. An indulgence was a piece of parchment signed by the pope or another church official that substituted a virtuous act from the treasury of merit for penance. People widely believed that indulgences secured total remission of penalties for sin and could substitute for both penance and time in purgatory. *Crusaders were give indulgences for their pilgrimages.

• Elizabethan Settlement

The parliamentary legislation of the early years of Elizabeth's reign. It required outward conformity to the Church of England and uniformity in all ceremonies.

• Luther and the Revolts

The peasants who expected his support were soon disillusioned. Freedom for Luther meant independence from the authority of the Roman church; not opposition to legally established secular powers. He was convinced that rebellion would hasten the end of civilized society, so he wrote the tract Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants

• Radicals in the future

Their community spirit and the edifying example of their lives contributed to the survival of radical ideas. Quakers = pacifists, Baptists = emphasis on inner spiritual light, Congregationalists = democratic church organization, 1787 authors of the U.S. Constitution = opposition to the "establishment of religion"

• Women and Luther

There was no official position for women in Protestant churches, but Protestant literature was smuggled into convents. Some nuns accepted Luther's idea that celibacy was not especially worthy and left their convents, while others remained and accepted Protestant teachings.

• Peasants in the early 16th century

They complained that nobles: seized village common lands, imposed new rents on manorial properties and new services on the peasants working those properties, forced the poor to pay unjust death duties in the form of the peasants' best horses or cows. Wealthy, socially mobile peasants especially resented these burdens, which they emphasized as new. The peasants believed that their demands conformed to the Scriptures and cited Luther as a theologian who could prove that they did.

• Educated people and humanists and Luther

They were attracted by his words. He advocated a simpler personal religion based on faith, a return to the spirit of the early church, the centrality of the Scriptures in the liturgy and in Christian life, and the abolition of elaborate ceremonies.

• Predestination

theological principle that God already decided at the beginning of time who would be saved and who would be damned. No one is created with a similar destiny.

• Trials and witchcraft

Trials involving the notion of witchcraft as diabolical heresy began in Switzerland and S. Germany in the late 15th century became less numerous in the early Reformation when Protestants and Catholics were busy fighting. It picked up again about 1560; many records have been lost so it is hard to make an estimate for all of Europe, but most scholars agree that during the 16th and 17th centuries somewhere between 100,000 and 200,000 people were tried and 40k-60k executed.

• The nationalization of the church and the dissolution of the monasteries effect on English/Ireland government

Vast tracts of formerly monastic land came temporarily under the Crown's jurisdiction, and new bureaucratic machinery had to be developed to manage those properties. Cromwell reformed and centralized the king's household, the council, the secretariats, and the Exchequer. New departments of state were set up, Surplus funds from all departments went into a liquid fund to be applied to areas where there were deficits. This balancing resulted in greater efficiency and economy. Henry VIII's reign saw the growth of the modern centralized bureaucratic state.

• Nature of witchcraft

witches riding on pitchforks and engaging in anti-Christian acts. Witch trials were secret, executions were public and witnessed by huge crowds.

• Pilgrimage of Grace

a massive multiclass rebellion that proved the largest in English history. Caused by 1536 popular opposition in the north to the religious changes. The "pilgrims" accepted a truce, but their leaders were arrested, tried, and executed.

• Political authorities, individuals, and religious leaders and Protestant Ideas

Zwingli worked closely with the city council of Zurich and in other places in Switzerland and S. Germany city councils took the lead. They appointed pastors that they knew had accepted Protestant ideas and oversaw their preaching and teaching. Luther lived in the lector of Saxony and he worked closely with political authorities, viewing them as fully justified in asserting control over the church in their territories. In his 1520 Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, he demanded that German rulers reform the papacy and ecclesiastical institutions, and in On Secular Government he instructed all Christians to obey their secular rulers. Individuals may have been convinced of the truth of Protestant teachings. A territory became Protestant when its ruler brought in a reformer or to re-educate the territory's clergy sponsored public sermons, and confiscated church property. (Happened in 1520's) In every Protestant area, there was a slightly different balance between popular religious ideas and the aims of the political authorities. In some areas, certain groups pushed for reforms while in others the ruler or city council forced religious change on a population that was hostile.

• Inquisition

a committee of 6 cardinals with judicial authority over all Catholics and the power to arrest, imprison, and execute.

• Anne Boleyn

a court lady-in-waiting that Henry fell in love with. Henry assumed she would give him a son. She failed twice to produce a male child, so she was charged with adulterous incest in 1536 and was beheaded.

• Golden Bull of 1356

a decree issued by the Holy Roman emperor Charles IV that established a process that elected the emperor. There were only seven electors - the archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne, the margrave of Brandenburg, the duke of Saxony, the court palatine of the Rhine, and the king of Bohemia.

• Thomas More

a humanist, resigned the chancellorship: he couldn't take the oath required by the Supremacy Act because it rejected papal authority and made the king head of the English church.

• Purgatory

a place where souls on their way to Heaven after death went to make amends for their earthly sins. When first discussed, purgatory was a natural place, unpleasant largely because one was separated from God, but by the 15th century it had acquired the fire and brimstone of Hell. Time in purgatory could be shortened by actions of living.

• Politiques

a small group of moderates of both faiths that saved France. They believed that only the restoration of strong monarchy could reverse the trend toward collapse. They favored accepting the Huguenots as an officially recognized pressure group. (religious toleration developed in the 18th century)

• Witch panic

a small hunt involving five-ten victims. Panics were most common in the part of Europe that saw the most witch accusations - Holy Roman Empire, Switzerland, and parts of France. Sometimes, panics were the result of legal authorities' rounding up a group of suspects together. Panics occurred after a climatic disaster often. Mass panics ended when it became clear to authorities or the community that the people being questioned were not what they understood witches to be.

• Augsburg Confession

a statement of faith developed by Lutherans and Protestant princes presented this to the emperor. It remained an authoritative statement of belief for many Lutheran churches for centuries.

• Thirty-nine Articles

a summary in thirty-nine short statements of the basic tenets of the Church of England approved by a convocation of bishops in 1563.

• Behavior of Clerics in the early 16th century

absenteeism and pluralism. Collected revenues from all of the offices and hired a poor priest, paying him just a fraction of the income to fulfill the spiritual duties of a particular local church.

• Treaty that ended war in Switzerland

allowed each canton to determine its own religion and ordered each side to give up its foreign alliances, a policy of neutrality that has been characteristic of modern Switzerland.

• Council of Trent

an ecumenical council called by Pope Paul III. It met intermittently from 1545-1563 at Trent, an imperial city close to Italy. It was called to reform the church and secure reconciliation with the Protestants. Lutherans and Calvinists were invited to participate, but reconciliation was impossible with their beliefs.

• Effects of German Peasants' War of 1525

authority of lay rulers strengthened, Reformation lost much of its popular appeal, peasants' economic conditions moderately improved, and in many parts of Germany, enclosed fields, meadows, and forests were returned to common use.

• Witch trials

began with a single accusation. Women number very prominently among accusers and witnesses as well as among those accused of witchcraft, because things witches do are part of women's sphere. A woman gained economic and social security by conforming to the standard of the good wife and mother.

• Habsburgs

benefits of an advantageous marriage was seen most dramatically here.

• John Fisher

bishop of Rochester, a distinguished scholar and a humanist, lashed the clergy with scorn for its cowardice in abjectly bending to the king's will.

• Protestants in the Netherlands

by the 1560's they were mainly Calvinists and were more militant in their beliefs. Calvinism appealed to the middle classes because of its intellectual seriousness, moral gravity, and emphasis on any form of labor well done. It took deep root among the merchants and financiers in Amsterdam and the Northern provinces. Calvinism tended to encourage opposition to "illegal" civil authorities.

• Gustavus Vasa (r. 1523-1560)

came to the throne in Sweden during a civil war with Denmark; also took over control of church personnel and income, and Protestant ideas spread, though the Swedish church didn't officially Lutheran theology until later in the century.

• Pluralism

clerics, esp. higher ecclesiastics, held several offices simultaneously but seldom visited them.

• Hymns, psalms, and Luther's two catechisms

compendiums of basic religious knowledge. They show the power of language in spreading the ideals of the Reformation. Hymns such as "A Mighty Fortress Is Our God" expressed deep human feelings. Luther's Larger Catechism contained brief sermons on the main articles of faith. Shorter Catechism gave concise explanations of doctrine in question-and-answer form. Both stressed the importance of the Ten Commandments, the Lord's prayer, the Apostle's Creed, and the sacraments for the believing Christian. These catechisms became powerful techniques for the indoctrination of men and women of all ages, especially the young.

• Twelve Articles

condemned lay and ecclesiastical lords and summarized the agrarian crisis of the early 16th century. Swabian peasant representatives met in 1525 at Memmingen and drew the Twelve Articles up.

• Archbishop Albert of Mainz

controlled the area in which Wittenberg was located and sought to become the bishop of several other territories. He borrowed money from the Fuggers, a wealthy banking family of Augsburg, to pay for the papal dispensation of the rules regarding pluralism.

• Low Countries

corruption in the Roman church and the spirit of the Renaissance provoked pressure for reform and Lutheran ideas spread. Charles V grew up in the Netherlands and he was able to limit their impact.

• The Reformation and German Politics

criticism of church widespread in Europe in early 16th century. The reformer whose ideas had he most impact lived in the politically divided Holy Roman Empire, which lacked strong central power.

• The Christian Church in the Early Sixteenth Century

deeply pious, remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church. Villagers honored local saints, Middle-class people made pilgrimages to great shrines (St. Peter's in Rome), and Upper classes remembered the church in their wills. Many people were critical of the Roman Catholic Church and its clergy.

• Protestant

derives from the protest drawn up by a small group of reforming German princes at the Diet of Speyer in 1529. At first Protestant meant "Lutheran" but with the appearance of many protesting sects, it became a general term applied to all non-Catholic western European Christians.

• Inquisitorial procedure and Witchcraft

didn't always lead to witch-hunts. The most famous inquisitions in early modern Europe (Spain, Portugal, Italy) were very lenient in their treatment of people accused of witchcraft. The Inquisition in Spain executed only a handful of witches. But there were hundreds of cases. Inquisitors doubted whether the people accused of witchcraft had actually made pacts.

• Transubstantiation

dogma: by the consecrating words of the priest during the Mass, the bread and wine become the actual body and blood of Christ, who is then fully present in the bread and wine.

• Catherine de' Medici

dominated her sons who occupied the throne. Her sons were very poor leaders.

• Three disorders of the church

early 16th century. Clerical immorality, clerical ignorance, and clerical pluralism, with the related problem of absenteeism.*

• Reformation in England

economic as well as religious causes. A complete break with Rome resulted in the divorce of King Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547).

• Peasant revolts

erupted in many parts of Europe in the 14th and 15th

• Reformation in Eastern Europe

ethnic factors were decisive in eastern Europe. In the later Middle Ages, the migration of diverse peoples into Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary meant that those countries had heterogeneous populations in the sixteenth century. Ethnic background tended to resolve religious matters.

• Bohemia in the 15th century

ethnic grievances of the Czech majority against German economic and ecclesiastical domination fused with Czech resentment at the corruption of the Roman church. By 1500, most Czechs had adopted the ideas of Jan Hus, and the emperor had been forced to recognize a separate Hussite church.

• Catholic and Protestant similarities

feared people of other faiths, who they often saw as agents of Satan. They feared those who were explicitly identified with Satan: witches living in their midst.

• Civil authorities on Anabaptists

feared that the combination of religious differences and economic grievances would lead to civil disturbances.

• Progress of Habsburg-Valois Wars

fighting began in 1546, and initially the emperor was very successful. France and the pop did not want Charles to become even more powerful. The pope withdrew papal troops, and the Catholic king of France sent money and troops to the Lutheran princes.

• Religious Wars

first battleground was Switzerland, which was officially part of the Holy Roman Empire, though it was really a loose confederation of 13 largely autonomous territories called "cantons." Some cantons remained Catholics and some became protestant. IN the late 1520s the two sides went to war. Zwingli was killed on the battlefield in 1531, and both sides quickly decided that a treaty was preferable.

• Habsburg-Valois Wars

first half of 16th century. It cost more than the French government could afford.

• Spanish authorities and Calvinism

in the 1560's, they attempted to suppress Calvinist worship and raised taxes, which sparked riots. Thirty churches in Antwerp were sacked and the religious images in them destroyed in a wave of iconoclasm. Brussels and Gent and north to the provinces of Holland and Zeeland experienced destruction too. From Madrid Philip II sent 20k Spanish troops under the duke of Alva to pacify the Low Countries. Alva interpreted "pacification" to mean the ruthless extermination of religious and political dissidents. On top of the Inquisition, he opened his own tribunal soon called "Council of Blood." On March 3, 1568, 1500 men were executed.

• Genevan Consistory

in the reformation of the city, it exercised a powerful role. It consisted of 12 laymen plus the Company of Pastors, of which Calvin was the permanent moderator. Its duties were "to keep watch over every man's life and to admonish amiably those whom they see leading a disorderly life." Though Calvin emphasized that the Consistory's activites should be thorough and "its eyes may be everywhere," correction were considered only "medicine to turn sinners to the Lord."

• Book of Common Prayer

included, together with the Psalter, the order for all services of the Church of England.

• Civil war in the Netherlands

lasted for ten years.

• Spread of Protestant Reformation

later 1520s, Protestant ideas and dynastic considerations combined to bring religious change. Protestant ideas spread into France and Eastern Europe. A second generation of reformers built on Lutheran and Zwinglian ideas to develop their own theology and plans for institutional change.

• Treaty of Cateu-Cambresis

signed by France and Spain in 1559. It ended the long conflict known as the Habsburg-Valois Wars. Spain was the victor. France had to acknowledge Spanish dominance in Italy, where much of the fighting had taken place. It didn't bring peace.

• Battle of Mohacs and Protestantism

it led to a great advance of Protestantism. Many Hungarian magnates accepted Lutheranism; Lutheran schools and parishes headed by men educated at Wittenberg multiplied. 85 percent of the population was Protestant, 10 percent remained Greek Orthodox, and just 5 percent stayed Catholic.

• 17 provinces of the Netherlands

it possessed historical liberties. Each was self-governing and enjoyed the right to make its own laws and collect its own taxes. Economic connections and the recognition of a common ruler unite the provinces. They made their living by trade and industry.

• Reason why those accused of witchcraft were often older

it took years to build up a reputation as a witch

• New religious orders

its establishment within the church reveals a central feature of the Catholic Reformation. Most of these new orders developedin response to rais the moral and intellectual level of the clergy. Education = major goal

• Protestant Reformation impact

marriage = positive. Impact on women was mixed. Nuns had lacked a religious vocation, but convents provided women of the upper classes with scope for their literary, artistic, medical, or administrative talents if they could not or would not marry. The reformation brought the closing of monasteries and convents and marriage became the only occupation for upper-class Protestant women. Women in some convents fought the Reformation, or argued that they could be protestants within convent walls. Most nuns left.

• Protestants and Failed Marriages

marriage is a contract. Marriage was created by God as a remedy for human weakness. The solution to failed marriages might be divorce and remarriage, which most Protestants came to allow. Germany, Switzerland, Scandinavia, and later Scotland and France allowed divorce for adultery and impotence, contracting a contagious disease, "malicious" desertion, conviction for a capital crime, or deadly assault. They sometimes allowed both parties to marry again and sometimes only the innocent.

• Pope Leo X

member of Medici family. He was constructing family chapels and tombs and continuing the building of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. He authorized a special St. Peter's indulgence and allowed Albert to keep a portion of the revenue.

• Charles V

nephew of Catherine of Aragon and was vigorously opposed to the annulment.

• Catholic or Protestant after Habsburg-Valois Wars

northern and central Germany became Lutheran, while the south remained Roman Catholic. There was no freedom of religion.

• Roman Inquisition

operated under the principles of Roman law. It accepted hearsay evidence, wasn't obliged to inform the accused of charges against them, and sometimes applied torture.

• Anticlericalism

opposition to the clergy.

• Luther and Papal finance

papal tax collectors had long been more active in the empire than they were in the more unified nation-states such as France, where royal power restricted them. Luther and others highlighted papal financial exploitation of Germany in sermons and pamphlets.

• Witch-Hunt

persecuting for witchcraft increased before the Reformation in the 1480's but became common about 1560. Religious reformers' extreme notions of the Devil's powers and the insecurity created by the religious wars contributed to this increase. Both Protestants and Catholics tried/executed witches w/ church officials and secular authorities acting together.

• Clerical privileges and immunities

priests, monks, and nuns were exempt from civic responsibilities (defending city, paying taxes). Religious orders held large amounts of urban property (as much as 1/3) Result: City governments determined to integrate clergy into civic life by reducing their privileges. City leaders brought into opposition with bishops and the papacy, which for centuries had stressed the independence of the church from lay control and distinction between clergy and laypeople.

• William of Nassau

prince of Orange/William the Silent. He led the Dutch troops in victory, but was shot by a French assassin loyal to Philip (first known assassination of political leader by handgun), and the leaders looked for help beyond borders to other Protestant areas.

• Edict of Nantes

published by Henry in 1598. It granted liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship to Huguenots in 150 fortified towns, such as La Rochelle.

• Genevan Catechism

published in 1541 by Calvin. Through it, children and adults memorized set questions and answers and acquired a summary of their faith and a guide for daily living.

• Saxony, in Starsbourg and Swiss cities on Anabaptists

radicals were banished or executed by burning, beating, or drowning.

• After brothels closed in 16th century

sex for money exchange was reshaped. Smaller illegal brothels were established or women moved to areas right outside city walls. Police were influenced or bribed to overlook such activities. For Italian city authorities, they tended to favor regulation over suppression; they viewed selling sex as a source of municipal income. From 1559 until the mid-eighteenth century in Florence, all women registered as prostitutes were to contribute an annual tax which went to support a convent for women who gave up prostitution.

• Religious Violence

religious differences led to riots, civil wars, and international conflicts. Especially in France and the Netherlands, Protestants and Catholics used violence as well as preaching and teaching against each other. The era of religious wars = time of the most virulent witch persecutions.

• Puritans

returning exiles that wanted all Catholic elements in the Church of England eliminated. They wanted to "purify" the church.

• Christian belief

salvation and justification come through faith, not good works, though true faith leads to love and to the active expression of faith in helping others. Faith is a free gift of God, not the result of human effort. God's word is revealed only in Scripture.

• Rulers of Swiss and German Society on Anabaptists

saw the connection between religious heresy and economic dislocation.

• Protestants and Catholics on Anabaptists

saw the separation of church and state as leading ultimately to the secularization of society.

• Habsburg - Valois Wars

series of wars with the French fought in Italy along the eastern and southern borders of France and eventually in Germany. This was the reason the emperor could not respond militarily to the Protestant territories forming a military alliance. The Turks had also taken much of Hungary and in 1529 were besieging Vienna.

• End of witch hunts

skepticism led to gradual end. 16th century, a few individuals questioned whether witches could ever do harm or engage in the activities attributed to them. Doubts about whether secret denunciations were valid or torture would ever yield a truthful confession gradually spread among the same type of religious and legal authorities who had so vigorously persecuted witches. Prosecutions were gradually outlawed with sporadic trials in the 18th century, but the people who thought themselves witches were more likely deluded or mentally defective, meriting pity rather than persecution. Only uneducated people believed in witches. The last official execution in England was in 1682. The last one for the Holy Roman Empire was in 1775.

• Radical Reformation

some individuals and groups rejected the idea that church and state needed to be united, and sought to create a voluntary community of believers. In terms of theology and spiritual practices, these individuals and groups varied widely, though they are generally termed "radicals" for their insistence on a more extensive break with the past. They repudiated infant baptism, and some adopted the baptism of believers - for which they were given the title of "Anabaptists" or rebaptizers by their enemies - while others saw all outward sacraments as misguided and concentrated on inner spiritual transformation. Some groups chose to follow Christ's commandments literally, while others reinterpreted the nature of Christ. Radicals were often pacifists and refused to hold office or swear oaths, which were required of nearly everyone with any position of authority, including city midwives and toll collectors. Some attempted communal ownership of property and lived simply. Different groups blended these practices in different ways and often reacted harshly to a member who deviated, banning the person from the group. Others argued for complete religious toleration and individualism.

• The Colloquy of Marburg

summoned in 1529 to unite Protestants, failed to resolve these differences, though Protestants reached agreement on almost everything else.

• Nobles and Reform in Scotland

supported it.

• The Anglican church

the Church of England which moved in a moderately Protestant direction during Elizabeth's reign. Services were conducted in English, monasteries were not re-established, and clergymen were grudgingly allowed to marry. Bishops remained as church officials; apart from language, the services were traditional.

• Effects of the Peace of Augsburg

there were limitations and problems that would become clear by the 16th century. It ended religious war in Germany for many decades, and it put political, religious, and economic life clearly in the hands of the territorial rulers. This agreement ended Charles V's hope of creating a united empire with a single church.

• Achievements of the Council of Trent

the council dealt with both doctrinal and disciplinary matters, it gave equal validity to the Scriptures and to tradition as sources of religious truth and authority, and it reaffirmed the seven sacraments and the traditional Catholic teaching on transubstantiation. It tackled the problems arising from ancient abuses by strengthening ecclesiastical discipline. Tridentine decrees required bishops to reside in their own dioceses, suppressed pluralism and simony, and forbade the sale of indulgences. Clerics had to give up concubines. The council required every diocese to establish a seminary for the education and training of the clergy. The Tridentine decree Tametsi stipulated that for a marriage to be valid, consent as given in the vows had to be made publicly before witnesses, one of whom had to be the parish priest. It laid a solid basis for the spiritual renewal of the church and for the enforcement of correction.

• The Catholic Reformation

the developments within the Catholic Church after the Protestant Reformation were seen as two interrelated movements - one a drive for internal reform linked to earlier reform efforts, and the other a Counter-Reformation that opposed Protestants in many ways. In both movements, the papacy, new religious orders, and the Council of Trent that met from 1545 and 1563 were important agents.

• The Institutes of the Christian Religion

the embodiment of Calvin's ideas. It was first published in 1536 and issued in 1559. The cornerstone of Calvin's theology was his belief in the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and the total weakness of humanity. Men and women are very insignificant before the infinite power of God. Calvin did not ascribe free will to human beings because that would detract from the sovereignty of God. God decided at the beginning of time who would be saved and who damned.

• Important factors in Witch-hunts

the heightened sense of God's power in the Reformation. Change in the idea of what a witch was. In the Middle Ages, many educated Christian theologians, canon lawyers, and officials added a demonological component to the notion of what witchcraft was. Witches helped the Devil and did what he wanted. Some demonological theorists claimed that witches were organized in an international conspiracy to overthrow Christianity, with a hierarchy similar to the hierarchy of angels and archangels that Christian philosophers had invented.

• John Calvin

the most important of the second generation reformers. His ideas shaped Christianity over a much wider area than Luther's.

• Henry's daughters

they were legitimated before Henry died in 1547 and the succession of Henry was first in his son and then in his daughters.

• Calvinism in Eastern Europe

with its stress on the power of church elders, appealed to the Polish szlachta (nobility) Its origin in France made it more attractive than Lutheranism. Several polish magnates including Jan Laski converted to Calvinism, and Calvinist nobles dominated the important diet of 1555. But doctrinal differences among Calvinists, Lutherans, and other groups prevented united opposition to Catholicism.

• The Political Impact of the Protestant Reformation

the practice of religion in the 16th century remained a public matter. The emperor, king, prince, magistrate, or other civil authority determined the official form of religious practice in his jurisdiction. Almost everyone believed that the presence of a faith different from that of the majority represented a political threat.

• Protestant views on Catholics

the roman church should be destroyed.

• Union of Utrecht

the seven Northern provinces out of the original 17 were led by Holland and formed the Union of Utrecht. In 1581, they declared their independence from Spain. North = Protestant. South = Catholic. Philip didn't accept this and war continued. Fighting continued off and on in the Netherlands, but the borders set by the Union of Utrecht became permanent. In 1609, Spain agreed to a truce that recognized the United Provinces.

• Concordat of Bologna

the treaty with the papacy in which Francis agreed to recognize the supremacy of the papacy over a universal council. The French crown gained the right to appoint all French bishops and abbots. This gave the monarchy rich supplement of money and offices and a power over the church that lasted until 1789.

• Townspeople and Protestant ideas

townspeople envied church's wealth, disapproved of the luxurious lifestyle of some churchmen, and resented tithes and ecclesiastical taxation. Protestant doctrines of the priesthood of all believers not only raised the religious status of laypeople, but also provided greater income for city treasuries. The city council taxed the clergy and placed them under the jurisdiction of civil courts after Zurich became Protestant.

• Economic condition in the early 16th century

varied from place to place but was generally worse than it had been in the 15th century and was deteriorating. *crop failures in 1523 and 1524 aggravated an explosive situation.

• Norway and Iceland and Reformation

violent reactions; Lutheranism was only gradually imposed on a largely unwilling populace

• Luther and the Peasants 16th century

wanted to prevent rebellion. Initially sided with the peasants and blasted the lords in his tract An Admonition to Peace. He warned nothing justified the use of armed force. He maintained that Scripture had nothing to do with earthly justice or material gain, a position that Zwingli supported.

• Ways that states increased their power in the 16th century

war, diplomacy, and marriage. Almost all of Europe was ruled by hereditary dynasties - except the Papal States and other cities. Claiming and holding resources involved shrewd marital strategies; it was cheaper to gain land by inheritance. Royal/Noble children were important tools of state policy. Popes and city leaders were often part of marital strategies; papal nieces, nephews, and sometimes children were coveted marriage partners. Wealthy urban families (esp. in Italy) transformed themselves into hereditary dynasties through coups and alliances and they cemented their position through marriages with more established ruling houses.