Ch 15-24 Neuropsychology

Disorders for visual perception

- Patients with temporal lobe damage are impaired at object recognition, complex pattern recognition (perception) - Right temporal lobe lesions lead to abnormal face perception and biological motion recognition; e.g., fail to perceive visual signal's significance

No known cure physical therapy and psychological counseling pharmacological therapy objectives --to increase dopamine function; block cholinergic system'

How do you treat Parkinson's Disease?

Range of drugs for different individuals ergotamine compounds --given with caffeine during acute attacks

How do you treat a migraine?

Right hemisphere more engaged in automatic components of emotion Generates feelings

How does RH function relative to emotion?

direct damage disrupting blood supply inducing bleeding swelling infection scarring of the brain

How does TBI affect brain functioning?

injury higher up on the spinal cord, more decreased emotion in anger and fear. injury in low level does not affect as much

How does a spinal cord injury affect emotion?

Left hemisphere plays a role in the cognitive control of emotion Interprets feelings

How does the LH function relative to emotion?

Medial Temporal Region (limbic cortex)

Includes the amygdala and adjacent cortex, the hippocampus and surrounding cortex (perirhinal, entorhinal cortex), and the fusiform gyrus Cortical areas TH and TF -Posterior end of the temporal lobe -Together make up the parahippocampal cortex

hyperkinetic-dystonic syndrome

Increased motor activity e.g tourette's syndrome, huntington's disease

Musicians have a larger volume of gray and white matter in Heschl's gyrus (primary auditory cortex) in both temporal lobes - Greater the aptitude the larger the gray matter volume Musical training induces plasticity Can combat the effects of brain injury and aging --Professional orchestral musicians have more gray matter in Broca's area

What is the relationship between music perception and the temporal lobe?

Patient J.P.

Normal intelligence Emotional problems; showed only anger Had no fear of being lost, displayed inappropriate social behaviors Behavioral problems No social feelings at all Found to be missing right frontal lobe and 50% of the left

Old-New recognition test

Old or studied, new unrelated, new related (lures) in lists to remember Lures treated as if previously studied Amnesic subjects may form a better memory but have a weak gist Control subjects with strong gist's remember the words --Doesn't happen with new unrelated words

When employment is used as a measure of recovery, an 80% recovery rate is found Social relationships and leisure activities not fully resumed -Relationships with siblings declined the most Measures of recovery often overlook the coping mechanisms the person is using

What is the return to daily life like?

functional fixedness

Required subjects to fixate on a box and ignore movement of a light Or to shift attention as a light moved across a row of boxes Increased activation in the right parietal cortex when the light was moving; increased activation in the left parietal cortex when the light moved in the right visual field

Cluster Headache

Unilateral pain short duration but recurs repeatedly for weeks or months before disappearing

Brown-Séquard Syndrome

Unilateral section through the spinal cord If loss is contralateral to the side of the section --Loss of pain and temperature sensation --Fine touch and pressure preserved If loss is ipsilateral to the side of the section --Preservation of pain and temperature --Loss of fine touch and pressure --Loss of sensation & voluntary movements distally

Able to plan and select relevant activities Be persistent and ignore distracting stimuli Have memory for what you have already done Executive Functions = temporal sequential organization of behaviors for task Responds to both internal, external, and context cues

What is the theory of frontal lobe function?

Drug therapy Surgery Prevention is most effective (stress control: avoid smoking, control blood pressure)

What is the treatment for cerebral vascular disorder?

Emotional memory has a unique anatomical component, the amygdala

What makes emotional memory unique?

Return of reflexes Development of rigidity Grasping facilitated or occurring as part of other movements Development of voluntary grasping Complete recovery takes 23-40 days, occurs in about 30% of patients

What is the expected recovery from hemiplegia?

Dorsolateral frontal lesions -No recovery in card sorting Right temporal lesions -No recovery on the Rey Figure Bilateral medial-temporal-lobe removal Little to no recovery Left temporal lesions -Significant improvement after 5-20 years, provided patients were young

What is the expected recovery from surgical lesion?

5% of school-age population is learning-disabled Problems with assessment If a person is 2 years behind in academic progress, they are classified as having a disability More disabilities are found in older children Achievement tests vary from school to school

What is the incidence of learning disabilities?

Brain qualitatively different from child's and adult's brain Rapid synaptic pruning and the growth of connections Differences in volumes of gray and white matter Differences in levels of transmitters, such as dopamine and GABA

What makes the adolescents brain different?

temporal lobe bordering the rhinal fissure including the perirhinal cortex and then entorhinal cortex

What makes up the rhinal cortex?

Right visual cortex disconnected from left hemisphere Left visual cortex disconnected from the speech zones

What may cause agnosia and alexia?

Letter identification Phrenological Grapheme skills Sequencing skills Short-term memory

What skills are required for reading?

Able to learn to complete a mirror-drawing task, yet had no explicit memory of ever having performed the task Completed mirror drawing task even without explicit memory of completing it Trace between two outlines while only looking at his hands in a mirror

What task could H.M complete and why?

Primary sensory areas No direct connections between them; easily disconnected Higher-order sensory zones Few if any direct connections; easily disconnected Hemispheres Are largely symmetrical and connected only by a few projection systems; easily disconnected

What three areas can disconnections occur easily?

Default Network

active while participants are resting, also when thinking about one's past, about the future, or when mind wanders

anterograde amnesia

amnesia for events after bilateral removal of the medial temporal lobes

Cerebral vascular insufficiency

disorder has variable nature over passage of time

Temple's (2003) research.

fMRI comparison of developmental dyslexics with normal controls Normal controls show greater activation in the left prefrontal cortex to rapid auditory stimuli Some dyslexics improved after training

Inattention blindness

failure to notice something that occurs during the performance of another task

Route following

follow a familiar route from one place to another

Fugue State

form of memory loss in which individuals have no knowledge of their former life; usually transient

Fuiform and inferior temporal gyri are...

functionally part of lateral temporal cortex

Phonemes

fundamental language sounds that form a word

Huntington's disease

genetic disorder; intellectual deterioration, abnormal movements (called choreas) and personality changes Begins as a reduction of activity and a restriction of interest Involuntary movements begin about a year later Movements start as fidgeting and slowly increase to almost incessant and irregular

Transcortical Motor Aphasia

good repetition, poor spontaneous production

topographic disorientation

gross disability in finding your way around in relation to environmental cues, even familiar ones

Formants

grouped send waves specific to each vowel; modify emitted sound; act as a bandpass filter

Ventral stream

hierarchical pathway traveling from the occipital cortex to the temporal lobe

Vocal cords

located in larynx air exhaled from lungs oscillates the vocal folds rate of oscillation determines the sound's pitch

anterograde spatial amnesia

loss of ability to navigate in new or novel environments

Ischemia

loss of blood supply to an area of the cortex

childhood (infantile) amnesia

loss of memory for the early years of life

motor disorders

malfunctions of the nervous system that cause involuntary or uncontrollable movements or actions of the body

Semantics

meaning of words and sentences that correspond to all lexical items

cognitive map

mental representations we use to navigate in space

Salience network

most active when a behavioral change is needed; operates to modulate other networks' activities - Seen in correlated activity in the ACC, supplementary motor cortex, and anterior insular cortex - If not functioning properly, default network shows excessive activity

Traumatic brain injury (TBI)

most common form of injury in people under the age of 40 sport activities account for 20% higher incidence of head trauma in males between 15 and 30 years old

activation in the inferotemporal lobe

when naming persons, tools, animals there is ...

McGurk Effect

when we see and hear conflicting syllables, we hear the syllable that we heard

graphemic reading (whole-word reading)

word is memorized

divergent thinking

number and variety of responses to a single question

Human vocal tract

special anatomy allows for wide range of sounds

transient ischemia (temporary ischemia)

symptoms are temporary usually lasting less than an hour without permanent brain damage

Focal seizures Generalized seizures Akinetic seizures Myoclonic spasms

what are the 4 types of seizures

Cholinergic, serotoninergic, and noradrenergic systems may be involved in memory Other ascending transmitter systems, including histamine and orexin systems may also contribute to memory

what are the neurotransmitters important for memory?

sub-ventricular zone

lined with neural stem cells

Thatcher Illusion

- Split-faces test Inverted faces are processed by the same cortical regions as other visual stimuli - Upright faces are processed in a separate face perception

Phonological Dyslexia

Inability to read nonwords aloud Otherwise reading is nearly flawless

topographic amnesia

Inability to remember the relationship between landmarks

Iowa Gambling Task

- Appears after damage to the orbitofrontal cortex - Unlike patients, controls found the ambiguous tasks more aversive; activated OFC & amygdala in tests of 50/50 probability

Pseudopsychopathy

- Appears after lesions of the right frontal lobe - Immature behavior, lack of tact and restraint - Promiscuous sexual behavior - Coarse language, lack of social graces, increased motor activity

symptoms of temporal-lobe lesions

- Auditory Disturbance in sensation and perception - Disorders of music perception - Disorders of visual perception - Disturbance in selection of visual and auditory input - Impaired organization and categorization - Inability to use contextual information - Long-term memory problems - Altered personality and affective behavior - Altered sexual behavior

Dorsal premotor cortex

- Chooses movement from a movement lexicon - Receives projections from parietal regions PE & PF - Receives projections from DLPFC

Primary motor cortex (M1: Area 4 in Brain)

- Elementary movements; e.g., mouth, limbs - Controls movement force and direction - Cells project to subcortical motor structures: -- Basal ganglia --Red nucleus --Spinal cord

Premotor cortex

- Immediately anterior to M1 - Can influence movement directly through corticospinal projections, or indirectly through projections to M1 - Frontal eye fields

Recency memory

- Tests memory for the order in which things have occurred - Frontal-lobe patients show impairment on this task

M.L.'s amnesia.

Amnesic for episodic events before his injury (retrograde amnesia) Damage to the right ventral frontal cortex and white matter, and uncinate fasciculus (connects the temporal and ventral frontal cortex)

FLuid intelligence

linked activation in both DLPFC&medial PFC, and in posterior parietal cortex

Dorsal Auditory Pathway

- concerned with directing movements with respect to auditory information o From auditory cortex to posterior parietal cortex o Detection of spatial location/movement of auditory inputs o Analogous to dorsal visual stream

Frontal Lobe Projection

- necessary for various aspects of movement control, short-term memory, and affect - Series of parallel projections reach from temporal association areas to frontal lobe - Auditory and Visual Cortex to two separate areas - Movement Control - Short-term Memory - Affect

paraplegia

paralysis of the lower limbs; complete transection of the spinal cord

Polymodal Pathway

- probably underlies stimulus categorization o series of parallel projections from Auditory and Visual association areas converge into the polymodal regions of STS o Stimulus categorization

Hierarchical Sensory Pathway

- subserves stimulus recognition. o Incoming Auditory and Visual Information o Stimulus Recognition o Hierarchical progression of connections from primary and secondary auditory and visual areas, ending in the temporal pole. o Ventral visual and auditory projections form parallel streams

Temporal-parietal junction (TPJ)

-Cortical region lying along the boundary of the temporal and parietal lobes -At the end of the Sylvia fissure, including the ventral regions of angular and supramarginal gyri( the inferior parietal lobe) and adjacent temporal cortex -Central to decision making in social context

Medial Temporal Projection

-crucial to long-term memory o From Auditory and Visual association areas to the medial temporal, or limbic regions o Goes first to the perirhinal cortex, then to the entorhinal cortex, and finally to hippocampal formation or amygdala or both o Hippocampal projection forms Perforant Pathway o Long-term memory

Balint's syndrome

A condition caused by brain damage in which a person has difficulty focusing attention on individual objects.

Crystallized intelligence:

Ability to retain and use knowledge acquired through prior learning and experience, which is closely related to Wechsler IQ score

Schizophrenia

Abnormality in the mesocortical dopaminergic projection that terminates in frontal lobe Decrease in blood flow to the frontal lobes, and frontal lobe atrophy Poor performance in all frontal-lobe tasks but normal in parietal- lobe tasks

Chronic stress (alters prefrontal neurons)

Affects temporal memory and goal-directed behaviors In male rats reduces synaptic space in medial PFC neurons but increases space in OFC In female rats: opposite effect on medial PFC In young adult rats the changes are partially reversible In aged rats, NO such recovery

K.C's amnesia

After TBI, had dense amnesia for personal experiences Could not imagine future any more than he could remember past Intact semantic memory

Korsakoff's Syndrome

Alcohol-induced damage to the dorsomedial thalamus; deficiency in frontal lobe catecholamines Performance poor on Wisconsin Card-Sorting test and at delayed-response

Semantic Memory

All nonautobiographical knowledge—knowledge about the world Does not depend on medial-temporal lobe-ventral-prefrontal-lobe memory system that subserves episodic memory

Myelination

Allows for normal adult function Begins after birth, continues until 18 years of age Different areas of the cortex are myelinated at different times

Panic disorder PTSD Generalized anxiety disorder OCD Phobias

Anxiety disorders

Pseudodepression

Appears after lesions of the left frontal lobe, Outward apathy, indifference, loss of initiative, Reduced sexual interest, Little or no verbal output

Labeling Categories

Attaches words to different concepts Categorization system can stimulate word forms about that concept Words can also cause the brain to evoke concepts Words used as labels can be used for different categories- not just used to identify catergories, but used to organize information

attentional blink

Attention to first target prevents awareness of second one, even if it's conspicuous Failure to detect a second stimulus if it is presented within 500 ms of the first

classic migraine

Begins with Aura that lasts for 20-40 minutes Occurs as a result of vasoconstriction in the occipital cortex- Headache --occurs as vasodilation takes place --Intense pain, mostly localized on one side --Symptoms may include nausea and vomiting --May last for hours or days

H.M. amnesia case

Bilateral transection of the temporal lobes for epilepsy management After surgery, left with anterograde amnesia Above-average IQ Good memory for events before the surgery, but unable to, e.g., describe the job he had worked for 6 months Intact semantic memory

Epilepsy

Brain disorder caused by seizures; seizures are recurrent

Auditory areas

Broadmann's area 41,42 and 43

Most changes after brain damage are due to learning new ways of functioning to compensate for damage, not in recovery of missing brain areas

Can plasticity support functional recovery after injury?

Transcortical aphasia (isolation syndrome)

Can repeat and understand words, and name objects Cannot speak spontaneously Cannot comprehend words even though they can repeat them

Conduction Aphasia

Can speak, name objects, and understand speech but cannot repeat words

Broca's aphasia (expressive aphasia)

Can understand speech Labors hard to produce speech Can be mild or severe

Korskoff's Syndrome

Caused by a thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency resulting from prolonged alcohol intake Damage may be in the medial thalamus, mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus, and frontal lobe atrophy Characterized by: Anterograde and retrograde amnesia, Confabulation, Meager content in conversation, Lack of insight, Apathy.

dentate gyrus

Cells are stellate Granule Cells "Sensory" cells

Feature search

Cognitive strategy for scanning for specific features Features may be biologically significant stimuli

developmental topographic disorientation (DTD)

Cognitve disorder without known brain injury An inability to segregate landmarks and derive navigational information from them, navigate through a nonverbal process, or generate cognitive maps

Anomic Aphasia (or amnesic aphasia)

Comprehend speech, produce meaningful speech, and repeat speech Great difficulty naming objects

Perforant Pathway

Connection between the hippocampus and the posterior temporal cortex neocortex

Fimbria-fornix

Connects the hippocampus to the thalamus, prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, and the hypothalamus

movement therapy

Constraint-induced movement therapy; must use the affected limb This motor training stimulates plastic changes in the brain

Ventral Premotor Cortex (PMv)

Contains mirror neurons Receives projections from parietal regions PE & PF Receives projections from DLPFC

Amnon's Horn

Contains pyrimidal cells divided into 4 groups, CA1, CA2, CA3, CA4 "Motor" cells

cell migration

Continues until about 8 months after birth Brain is more sensitive to trauma during migration

Zipper hypothesis

Corpus callosum knits together the representation of the midpoints of the body and space that are divided by the longitudinal fissure

John Dower's (1961) monkey experiment

Cut all commissures connecting the brain and ablated one amygdala

Wernicke's Aphasia (or sensory aphasia)

Deficits in classifying sounds or comprehending words Word salad: intelligible words strung together randomly Patient confuses phonetic characteristics Cannot write because cannot discern phonemic characteristics

Musicians who exercise their fingers more have larger areas of representation of those fingers in the brain

Describe Elbert and colleagues study.

19 years old, attended school for 11 years Normal performance IQ on the WAIS, but had language skills of a 6-year-old Discrepancies in left-hemisphere function

Describe Patient Ms. P

Flu-like symptoms and a persistent severe headache Facial recognition deficits Hemispatial mental neglect Apraxia Deficits in social cognition Abnormally low blood flow to the superior parietal region

Describe Patient R.P.

Variety of Forces Involved Coup: damage at the site of the blow Countercoup: damage at the opposite side of the blow due to pushing or pressure Twisting and shearing of major fiber tracts Bleeding and pressure can result in hematomas Edema General complaints after injury --Inability to concentrate or do things as well --Highly skilled people most affected --Effects on personality and social behavior if injury in frontal or temporal lobes People who sustain closed-head injuries are at risk for future head injury Effects are cumulative

Describe TBI closed-head injury?

Word sounds are sent to the Primary Auditory Cortex Word meaning is represented in Wernicke's area Word meaning is sent to Broca's area via the arcuate fasciculus Broca's area sends instructions for speech articulation to the motor cortex To read, visual areas send information to the angular gyrus and to Wernicke's or Broca's area

Describe Wernicke-Geschwind Model

Reduced social interaction Loss of social dominance Inappropriate social interaction Altered social preference Reduced affect -Do not have posture, gestures, expressions as normal monkeys -Can express but very rarely Reduced vocalization

Describe behavioral changes in Monkeys with frontal lesions.

Food Caching in Birds Use distal spatial cues to find their caches Birds that cache have larger hippocampi Changes in hippocampal size correlate with changes in caching behavior

Describe caching behavior in birds?

Cognitive processes can change emotional responses Example: pain expectancy and pain perception Activation of the prefrontal and cingulate cortex during reappraisal of self-emotion

Describe cognitive control of emotion.

Increased activity in the insula during tasks assessing empathy for pain Bilateral damage to the ventromedial prefrontal region produces impairments of social conduct, decision making and emotion processing Lesions in TPJ and anterior cingulate cortex related to social change

Describe different lesions and their effects one emotion

Generation of the "self" Right frontoparietal network Recognition of our own face Cortical midline network Monitor psychological states in others and the self

Describe self and social cognition.

Genes, cues, and signals guide the formation of synapses Five Phases 1 and 2: Take place in embryonic life and generated independently of experience 3: Rapid growth 4: Plateau and rapid elimination through puberty 5: Plateau in middle age, then steady decline with age Experience expectant Development depends on the presence of sensory experiences Phases 3 and 4 Experience dependent Generation of synapses that are unique to the individual Phases 3, 4, and 5

Describe synapse formation.

Severe speech disorder in about half of the family Deficit was in sequencing articulation Genetic mutation of the gene FOXP2 - One gene regulated by FOXP2 is CNTNAP2 - CNTNAP2 implicated in specific language-related disorders and in autism spectrum disorder Brain abnormalities shown on MRIs

Describe the KE family

Have specific targets to reach Some grow away from the cell body Some travel great distances Some follow chemical or electrical signals

Describe the development of the axons

Dendritic arborization Growth of dendritic spines A slow process; continues after birth

Describe the development of the dendrites

Moran and Desimone (1985) Cells respond selectively to information that is in their receptive field Cells in V1 did not show attentional effect Cells in TE did show attentional effects Spitzer and colleagues (1988) Examined cell responsiveness to lines of different orientation using a discrimination task Information processing in the visual system differed depending on the amount of effort

Describe the selective attention study.

Categorization

Designates certain qualities to specific concepts E.g., A plant category or an animal category Makes it easier to perceive information and retrieve it later when needed

Corbetta (1993) study

Devised a selective attention vs. a divided attention task Parietal cortex activated for attention to location Occiptotemporal cortex is activated for attention to features Anterior cingulate and prefrontal areas were activated in both tasks

attentional dyslexia

Difficulties naming letters when more than one is present Difficulties reading when more than one word is present

grid cells

Discharge at regular spatial intervals that mark nodes Nodes represent points throughout the environment and form a grid Orientation of grids demarked by cells can orient to different cues and can be influenced by direction

place cells

Discharge when an animal is in a certain place in an environment Maintain activity in the dark When the environment is rotated, cells discharge according to new pattern They fire in particular places, when the animal is changing direction Prefer visual cues Will fire in response to specific objects Respond to a single visual cue; stop responding when that cue is randomly moved May be active in only one environment Activity linked to the ability to move

head direction cells

Discharge when the rat points its head in a particular direction Similar to a compass needle; they fire as long as the head is facing a direction Influenced by surrounding cues Continue to fire in the dark Can change orientation depending on the cues of the environment Work both in horizontal and vertical planes Locked into a constantly active network

Dual Language pathway

Dorsal language pathways convey phonological information for articulation; ventral pathways, semantic information for meaning. All are involved in syntax and may contribute to short- and long-term memory for language

Dual-contribution theory

Dorsal- and ventral-stream projections remain partially separate

Standardized Neuropsychological assessment

Easy to administer and score Need to understand the brain to interpret

change blindness

Failure to detect changes in the presence, identity, or location of objects in scenes

Visualization test

Evaluate the ability to manipulate, rotate, twist, or invert two- or three-dimensional stimulus objects mentally.

Malingering

Exaggerating cognitive deficits for external rewards -- Motivation in test performance suspect in at least 20% of people with head trauma, toxin exposure --Forced Choice digit memory test is currently most sensitive to lack-of-effort

Stephen Frey and Michael Petrides (2000)

Examined the heterogeneity of function in the orbitofrontal cortex Examined functions of the orbital region using PET Increased activity in area 13 to unpleasant auditory stimuli Area 13 has extensive connections with amygdala and hypothalamus Increased activity in area 11 when learning new visual information This area has connections with the ventral visual stream Functional dissociation between the two areas Area 13: Responds to affective qualities Area 11: Processes new visual information

skull penetration Neurological signs/symptoms highly specific May undergo rapid and spontaneous recovery if injury small and highly specific Recovery can be remarkable E.g., Gabrielle Giffords, a U.S. Rep from Arizona

Explain TBI's with Open-head injuries.

Radial glial cells

Extend from the subventricular zone to cortical surface Neurons migrate out by traveling along "roads" of these cells

callosal Commissurotomy

Fibers cut as a therapy for epilepsy

Asperger's syndrome

Form of autism in which individuals have high intellectual function and excellent memory abilities

Mimicry

Fosters language development - Infants prefer to listen to speech - Can make sounds used in all languages Mirror Neurons in the frontal cortex help children mimic sounds they hear

Gestural Theory of Language

Gestural language is related to vocal language Social groups required communication Primitive gestures evolved into language Supporting evidence Language and gestures use similar neural systems Primates use gestures for communication Left hemisphere lesions disrupt sign language (and spoken language)

Case 2: Epilepsy

History of seizures that began in left side of his face and left hand Right facial area/part of right frontal lobe removed Preop: Difficulties on Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test and Rey Complex Figure; finger position deficits Postop: Verbal IQ scores and long-term verbal memory improved, but still had difficulties with card-sorting test, Rey Complex Figure, and digit function on left side

Exposure to mind-altering drugs produce alterations in dendritic length and spine density -addicts' behavior result in prefrontal morphology

How can plasticity be maladaptive?

Injuries may produce color amnesia, prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces), object anomia, and topographic amnesia (cannot recall locations of objects)

How do the parietal and occipital cortex function relative to memory?

Scene construction theory

Hippocampus functions for neither spatial memory nor episodic memory but rather employs both to create more spatially coherent scenes

Case 1 Epilepsy

History of seizures before admissions Impairment on Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test only difficulty found before surgery Left-frontal lobe lesion found 2 weeks after surgery: decreases in intelligence ratings, memory quotients, verbal-recall scores A year after surgery, ratings & quotients normal

Acetylcholine therapy to relieve symptoms Thymectomy and immunosuppressive drugs

How do you treat Myasthenia Gravis?

Good auditory comprehension of language Hemispherectomy (removal of a hemisphere) If left hemisphere is removed early, the right hemisphere can acquire language If left hemisphere removed in adults, severe deficits in speech but still good auditory comprehension Removal of the right hemisphere produces subtle changes in language comprehension

How does the RH contribute to language?

actions toward or away from objects egocentric

How does the dorsal stream relate to spatial behavior?

more engaged in encoding semantic and episodic information than in retrieving it

How does the left prefrontal cortex function relative to memory?

More engaged in episodic information retrieval than left

How does the right prefrontal cortex function relative to memory?

complex actions that use objects for references allocentric

How does the ventral stream relate to spatial behavior?

Recovery may continue 2-3 years, with bulk of recovery occurring in 6-9 months Good recovery of cognitive skills Poor recovery of social functions and personality (quality of life)

How long and what are the effects of recovering from a head injury?

at least 6

How many cortical/subcortical pathways make up the ventral stream?

Frontal Eye Fields

If eye gaze is affected, where might there be a lesion?

Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS)

Imaging reveals activation in the STS during perception of biological motion

Right temporal lobe lesions

Impaired recall of nonverbal memory

Fluent aphasia

Impairment in input or reception of language

Global Anterograde Amnesia

Impairment in the ability to form new memories across a variety of areas

Drug addiction

Impulsive/compulsive behavior or perseveration Impairments in orbitofrontal blood flow during acute withdrawal and even after long periods of abstinence Addictive drugs change the structure of neurons in both the orbitofrontal and medial prefrontal regions in rats

retrograde amnesia

Inability to access old memories May be incomplete—older memories accessible but more recent memories are not

anterorgrade amnesia

Inability to acquire new memories Patient HM (unable to make new memories post surgery)

Dyslexia

Inability to read Developmental: acquired before or just after birth Acquired: due to brain damage after learning to read

poliomyelitis

Infectious disease by a virus that has affinity for the spinal cord motor neurons and sometimes motor neurons of cranial nerves

Inferotemporal cortex damage

Interferes with conscious recall of information

Right

Is the right or left temporal lobe important for face processing?

aphasia

Language disorder: in speech, in writing (agraphia), or in reading (alexia)

Continuity theory

Language evolved gradually One line of evidence is adaptation of animal vocalization for language

Sequencing Behavior

Left hemisphere helps order vocal movements used in speech Can also sequence face, body, and arm/hand movements used to produce nonverbal language

anterograde disorientation

Lesion to the hippocampal gyrus. Inability to learn new representations of environmental information. Difficulty navigating in new, but not old, environment.

Spatial-mapping or memory deficit

Lesion to the hippocampus. Anterograde and retrograde amnesia, especially for rich spatial details. Spatial learning deficits.

landmark agnosia

Lesion to the lingual gyrus. Shows an inability to represent appearance of prominent landmarks

heading disorientation

Lesion to the posterior cingulate. Inability to represent direction of orientation with respect to environment. No sense of direction

egocentric disorientation

Lesion to the posterior parietal. Inability to represent the location of objects with respect to self. Also problems with mental rotation.

Had larger posterior hippocampal areas Right posterior hippocampus increased as a function of how long the person had been a taxi driver When taxi drivers compared with bus drivers, bus drivers did not display hippocampal changes like those in the taxi drivers

London Taxi Drivers

Association Fibers

Long fiber bundles that connect distant neocortical areas Short subcortical fibers that connect adjacent neocortical areas

Frontal lobe lesion in the primary motor cortex

Loss of ability for fine movements, speed, and strength --Typically appears after damage to the primary motor cortex

retrograde spatial amnesia

Loss of ability to navigate in environments that were familiar before the injury

Parkinson's disease

Loss of dopamine cells in the substantia nigra that indirectly project to the prefrontal cortex through caudate's projection Impaired on Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test and at delayed-response tasks

Hypokinetic-rigid syndrome

Loss of movement e.g parkinson's disease

Frontal lobe lesion in permit or cortex

Loss of movement programming Damage to the premotor deficit in movement programming Right or left frontal damage deficit in copying a series of facial movements. Can reproduce movements but out of order

WAIS test (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale)

Measures general intelligence; Has subscales for verbal ability and performance; Can be useful as a rough measure of right- and left-hemisphere functioning

reconsolidation theory

Memories rarely consist of single trace or neural substrate Each time memory used it is reconsolidated A memory reenters a labile phase when it is recalled and is then re-stored as a new memory Results in many different traces for the same event

neglect dyslexia

Misreading of the first or second half of a word

common migraine

Most frequent type—occurs in 80% of migraine sufferers --No clear aura, but another signal may presage attack

Cell differentiation

Neuroblasts become specific types of neurons Essentially complete at birth

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal circuit (HPA axis)

Oversecretion of cortisol; chronic stress involved Widespread influence on cerebral functioning

Patient MC

Partial callostomy -Severed the anterior corpus callosum -Maintained bilateral activation to somatosensory information Later, posterior corpus callosum severed -Left with only contralateral activation to somatosensory information

Wisconsin Card Sorting Task

Patients cannot shift responses LH dorsolateral prefrontal cortex lesion Other PFC regions on either hemisphere will produce attenuated deficits

Insomnia

Poor sleepers --Have decreased dream sleep --Go through more transitions between stages --Move more during sleep --Claim they haven't been sleeping when awakened associated with nightmares, night terrors, sleep apnea, restless legs syndrome, myoclonus, brain damage, or drug use

Wernike's theory of disconnection effects

Predicted conduction aphasia - connection severed between anterior and posterior speech centers

Frontal eye fields

Receive input from posterior parietal region PG & superior colliculus

Surface dyslexia

Read by sounding words out Have trouble with irregular words, must be memorized Spelling impaired but phonetically correct

letter-by-letter reading

Read only by spelling words out to themselves

Dual-route theory

Reading uses lexical and nonlexical routes Normal Readers: compute sense and sound in parallel Dyslexic Reader: one process or the other may be absent In deep dyslexia, unable to process for sound and reads for sense Reading actual meaning of word, but won't say actual word but word that has similar meaning

system consolidation theory

Role of the hippocampus is to consolidate memories, making them permanent, hold them for a time, and then send them to be stored elsewhere in the brain Accounts for preservation of old memories As more damage occurs, the more old memories that will be lost

neural tube

Rolled up sheet of cells that will form the brain and spinal cord Begins developing about 3 weeks after conception

Disorders that affect the frontal lobe

Schizophrenia Paarkinson's disease Korsakoff's syndrome Drug addiction Chronic Stress alters prefrontal neurons

Attention

Selective awareness of a part of the environment "Mental spotlight"

Deep Dyslexia

Semantic errors are key symptoms Easier to read concrete rather than abstract words Completely unable to read nonsense words Impaired at writing and short term verbal memory

Conjunction search

Serial process; scanning from one location to the next searching for particular combinations

Case 3: Rehabilitation

Severe cognitive loss: Poor nonverbal memory --Severe motor handicaps ---Apraxia and ataxia ---Anarthria (unable to coordinate muscles of mouth) Successful rehabilitation—now a chartered accountant in Canada (CPA in U.S.)

primate experiments regarding frontal lobe lesions

Showed deficits of temporal memory *** Monkeys had to associate tone and color hear tone the after 10s choose color A large contingent of DLPFC cells responded to one tone and others to the other tone --one incorrect trials DLPFC cells did not respond

Morphemes

Smallest meaningful units of words

phonological reading

decoding the sounds of words

Discourse

Stringing sentences together to form a meaningful narrative

Overman and Bachevalier's (2001) study.

Studied brain structures involved in learning and memory Nonmatching-to-sample task Assesses temporal lobe function Children can solve around 18 months of age Concurrent discrimination task Assesses basal ganglia function Children can solve around 12 months of age

Function of the hippocampus

Studies of hippocampal patients demonstrate four conclusions: Anterograde deficits are more severe than retrograde Episodic memories are more affected than semantic memories Autobiographic memory is especially severely affected Time "travel" is diminished

Piloting

The ability to take a course to a place that is not directly marked by a cue or route.

Liepman's theory of disconnection effects

Theory of Apraxia - series of neocortical disconnections

Multiple-trace theory (Theory of Retrograde Amnesia)

Three kinds of memory: Autobiographic memory, Factual semantic memory, General semantic memory Each type is dependent on a different brain area Old memories are more resistant to amnesia because they change location in the brain as they are recalled

cocktail party effect

We can "hear" speech better in a noisy environment if we the speaker's lips

Divided attention

We have limited capacity that must be allocated among different activities Performance on all tasks suffers when we divide attention between too many tasks E.g., driving and talking on your cell phone

Parallel processing

We must allocate attention within and between sensory modalities When directing attention to a relevant stimulus, brain activation in that modality increases When directing attention away from a stimulus, brain activation in that modality decreases There is activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex when dividing attention.

Tameness and loss of fear Indiscriminate dietary behavior—eat disliked foods Hypermetamorphosis—reacts to all visual stimuli Examination of objects by mouth Visual agnosia

What are Klüver-Bucy Syndrome (1939) symptoms?

Sensorimotor Object permanence Preoperational Can represent things with words and drawings Concrete operations Can understand Conservation Formal operations Abstract reasoning

What are Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

Downregulated by stress; upregulated by antidepressants May affect functioning of monoamine synapses

What are brain derived neurotrophic factors (BDNF)?

Suggest meaning comes through connections between nodes to comprise neural webs Brain is organized into neural webs for different aspects of language Webs consist of nodes and their two-way connections

What are nodes and neural webs?

Genetic susceptibility Trace Metals --Increased concentration of aluminum found Immune Reactions -Antibrain antibodies can cause neuronal degeneration

What are potential causes of dementia?

Paralimbic cortex changes --Degeneration of the limbic system and entorhinal cortex Cell changes --Shrinking of neurons --Loss of dendritic arborizations

What are some brain abnormalities from dementia?

Activation occurs in the motor areas during limb movements recruits cortical areas along the rim of cortical injury The motions of stroke patients activate much larger cortical areas, especially parietal and premotor areas, than do similar movements by controls

What are some examples where you see activation after brain injuries?

Washoe (chimp) learned some SL for objects or actions Alex the parrot had the ability to categorize, label, sequence and mimic along with simple counting

What are some language like abilities in nonhuman animals like chimps and parrots?

Basal Ganglia Thalamus

What are some subcortical components of languages?

Males use spatial mapping; females use landmarks Advantage applies not only to task but to part of space in which task is performed This advantage related to abilities in chess, math, music, and art

What are spatial ability differences in males and females?

Major neurodegenerative disorder (MND) Mild neurocognitive disorder (NCD)

What are the 2 types of dementia?

Onset of aura: warning of an impending seizure Loss of consciousness Motor component; body moves different ways

What are the 3 common symptoms of Epilepsy

1. Set of subcortical projections from every region of the occipitotemporal pathway extends to neostriatum (caudate nucleus & putamen of basal ganglia ) 2. Amygdala-bound projections from inferotemporal regions allows processing of emotionally salient info 3. Inferotemporal cortex to ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens) to support the assignment of stimulus valence 4. Medial temporal pathway - long-term memory 5. Orbitofrontal pathway - object-reward associations 6. Ventrolateral prefrontal pathway- object working memory

What are the 6 cortical/subcortical structures pathways that compromise the ventral stream?

Short-term memory Long-term memory Explicit memory Episodic memory Semantic memory Implicit memory Procedural Memory

What are the 7 types of memory?

therapy can facilitate recovery

What are the benefits of therapy?

Cortex shrinks and thins Basal ganglia atrophy and show marked neuronal loss Imbalance among the various neurotransmitter systems --Death of GABA and ACh neurons in the basal ganglia Poor performance on memory and frontal-lobe tests

What are the brain abnormalities of Huntington's disease?

Phonological deficiency Attentional deficiency Sensory deficiency Motor deficiency

What are the causes of reading disabilities?

Association Fibers Projection FIbers Commissural Fibers

What are the cerebral connecting fibers?

Clinical Depression Mania Bipolar Disorder

What are the differences in mood disorders?

inattentional blindness Change Blindness Attentional Blink

What are the different forms of inattention

- Cortical Deafness --Bilateral damage to auditory cortex --Absence of neural activity in the auditory regions - Auditory Hallucinations - Impaired auditory processing - Trouble discriminating speech sounds - Speech Disorders --Wernicke's Aphasia (left temporal assoc. cortex) ---Disturbed recognition of words ----At its extreme, word deafness

What are the disorders of auditory and speech perception?

- Right posterior superior temporal gyrus damage affects rhythm discrimination - Meter discrimination affected by anterior damage to either right or left temporal lobe - Congenital Amusia affects 4% of people --Are tone deaf

What are the disorders of music perception?

1. Hierarchical Sensory Pathway 2. Dorsal Auditory Pathway 3. Polymodal Pathway 4. Medial Temporal Projection 5. Frontal Lobe Projection

What are the five distinct connections of the temporal cortex?

Psychophysiology Distinctive motor behavior Self-reported cognition Unconcious behavior

What are the four components of Emotion?

Categorization Labeling Categories Sequencing behavior Mimicry

What are the four core language skills?

Observable behavior Neural imaging and cortical maps synaptic organization Physiology Molecular structure Mitotic Activity

What are the levels of plasticity?

Removal leads to deficits in recall of word lists, recall of consonant trigrams, nonspatial associations, and on the Hebb Recurring-Digits test

What are the memory functions fo the left temporal cortex?

Removal leads to deficits on face recognition, spatial position, and maze learning

What are the memory functions fo the right temporal cortex?

decrease in gray matter in the temporal lobe and cerebellum -- decrease correlates with # of episodes

What are the neurobiological aspects of bipolar disorder?

Decreased activity in: Dorsolateral and medial prefrontal regions --Reduced memory and attention Increased activity in: Orbital regions --An attempt to inhibit amygdala activity --An attempt to break persistent negative thoughts Amygdala --May increase HPA-axis activity Medial thalamus

What are the neuropathological and blood flow abnormalities that depression has on the body?

Dentate gyrus Amnon's horn perforant pathway fimbria-fornix

What are the parts of the Hippocampal?

Incorrect pathway formation; can cause Athetosis Dystonia

What are the possible effects of this?

Amygdala network mentalizing network empathy network Mirror/stimulation/action-perception network

What are the social neural networks?

Asperger's Syndrome Savant HSAM (highly superior autobiographical memory)

What are the special memory abilities?

Brains weigh less than average weight Enlarged ventricles Reduction in the number of neurons in the prefrontal cortex Thinner parahippocampal gyri Abnormal cellular structure in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus Hypofrontality during card sorting

What are the structural abnormalities in Schizophrenic brains?

Limbic cortex Amygdala Hippocmapal formation Extensions and connections of temporal lobe extends throughout the brain

What are the subcortical temporal-lobe structures?

Primary Motor Cortex Premotor Cortex

What are the subdivisions of the frontal lobe?

Auditory areas ventral stream of visual information temporal sulci enfold a lot of cortex Insula Superior Temporal Sulcus Medial Temporal Region (limbic cortex) temporal Parietal Junction

What are the subdivisions of the temporal cortex?

movements entail whole limbs; irregular, no pattern to them, affect head, face, trunk and limbs personality changes cognitive impairments anxiety, depression, mania, and schizophrenia-like psychoses

What are the symptoms of Huntington's disease

Muscular rigidity tremor involuntary movements postural disturbances symptoms can vary from patient to patient

What are the symptoms of Parkinson's disease?

Loss of movement, sensation and reflexes, loss of thermoregulatory activity, loss of bladder control some spinal reflexes gradually return but movement, thermoregulation and bladder control do not

What are the symptoms of paraplegia?

Delusions or beliefs that distort reality Hallucinations disorganized speech, senseless rhyming disorganized or excessively agitated behavior other symptoms that cause social or occupational dysfunction

What are the symptoms of schizophrenia?

happens in three stages: (1) multiple tics are first symptom (2) inarticulate cries are added to the tics (3) emission of articulate words added to tics & cries

What are the symptoms of tourette's syndrome?

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Task The Stroop Test

What are the tests for frontal lobe lesions

1. Processing auditory input 2. Visual object recognition 3. Long-term storage of sensory input

What are the three basic functions of the temporal lobe?

Fluent aphasia non-fluent aphasia pure aphasia

What are the three categories of aphasia?

Most projections are topographical; connect to homotopic areas Connects projections areas contralaterally Diffuse terminal projections, possibly to alert appropriate zones in one hemisphere that the other is active

What are the three classes of connections?

Alerting network Orienting network Dual executive networks

What are the three networks of attention?

1. System Consolidation theory 2. Multiple-trace theory (theory of retrograde amnesia) 3. Reconsolidation theory

What are the three theories of amnesia?

experience-expectant plasticity experience-dependent plasticity *synaptic changes in both types are all dependent on experiences

What are the two types of plasticity derived from experience?

Rehabilitation procedures consist of a variety of experiential, behavioral, and psychological therapies Pharmacological therapies are intended to promote recovery in the immediate postsurgery period Brain stimulation increases brain activity Brain-tissue transplants and stem-cell-induction techniques are being developed in the hope of restoring healthy brain changes Diet provides the building blocks for plastic changes

What are therapeutic approaches to recovery after brain damage?

Complete recovery of function if injury occurs during neurogenesis Injury during migration and differentiation is devastating After migration and differentiation the brain can recover

What are three different ways the brain can show plasticity

Phonological Reading Graphemic Reading (whole-word reading) Reading initially depends on phonological skills, then depends on graphemic skills as we become better readers

What are types of reading?

Anticonvulsant drugs --diphenylhydantoin (DPH, Dilantin) --Phenobarbital Surgery Deep brain stimulation (DBS) --invasive --requires further assessment with long term trials

What are ways to treat epilepsy?

The limbic system: Amygdala and prefrontal cortex especially important for emotion

What areas of the brain are important for emotion?

Interfere with speech and neural function Prime neurons to enhance reaction times Evaluate connections between brain regions Be used to map speech regions in the brain; e.g., regions used to select words and to produce sounds Aid in cortical contributions to language Examine neural changes that occur after damage

What can Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) do?

Dorsal premotor cortex ventral premotor cortex Inferior frontal gyrus (broca's area)

What can the prefrontal cortex be divided into?

Temporal lobe

What compromises all the tissue below the Sylvia fissure and anterior to the occipital lobe?

Examined feelings of regret in normals and patients with orbitofrontal lesions Orbitofrontal patients showed no regret

What did Camille research?

Experience and anticipation of regret was associated with activation in the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala Anticipational Regret

What did Coricelli research?

Inborn errors in metabolism Alterations in gene expression Epigenetic alterations by environmental interactions related to abnormal gene methylation Long-latency effects of nutritional abnormalities

What did Kaplan and colleagues find in the link between mood disorders & micronutrients?

Paralysis and wasting of the muscles due to motor neuron loss

What does Poliomyelitis affect?

the patient's history --- personal background/ disease history ---family background ---observance of behavior and state of awareness while taking history ---giving simple tests of memory and speech Physical examination ---measurement of head and body size ---examination of reflexes ---assessment of smell and taste ---examination of sensation and hearing ---tests for sensitivity to light ---examination of strength and muscular reflexes ---object recognition ---blood pressure measurement

What does a neurological examination consist of?

Hippocampus

What does the rhinal cortex project to?

What area of he brain is most likely to be damaged How sensitive is th test characteristics of the individual are important --damage due to trauma, surgery, or brain lesion -- age --IQ --Culture --Sex and handedness

What factors affect test choice?

Changes in pH balance and in the cell membrane occur in the first few seconds massive release of glutamate open calcium channel allow toxic levels of Ca+ mRNA is stimulated; protein production is altered tissue becomes inflamed and swollen

What happens during a brain injury like ischemia?

Impairment in use of verbs and correct grammar: agrammatism

What happens with frontal lobe lesions in Broca's area?

Changes in voluntary gaze Damage due to interrupted activity in the frontal eye fields

What happens with frontal lobe lesions in the frontal eye fields?

Mute forever if bilateral, but only few weeks if unilateral

What happens with frontal lobe lesions in the supplementary motor cortex?

some functional improvement is likely with the passage of time

What happens with functional brain imaging after a cerebral injury?

functional brain imaging, cognitive neuroscience and managed healthcare because its goal is to determine person's general level of cerebral functioning, identify cerebral dysfunction, and localize it where possible

What has influenced neuropsychological assessment and why?

Test for fluency - word test specificity Design fluency test

What is a test of behavioral spontaneity?

Olfaction in the cat Flehmen - behavior produced in the cat when it smells an odor from another cat processing information by their sense of smell is important

What is an example of species-specific behavior?

Blocking axon on its way to target Ingestion of toxic materials Genetic abnormalities Damage to the axon's target

What is neural pathway disruption?

A. EEG (Electroencephalogram) B. EMG (electromyogram) C. EOG (electrooculogram)

What is sleep study protocol?

Vocal cords (vocal folds) Formants Human vocal tract

What is the anatomy for sound production?

Head-injury patients showed most rapid and almost complete recovery Initial deficits are least severe in anomic patients and most severe in global aphasics; rate of recovery similar in all patients As patients are recovering, they progress to other stages but recovery often stopped in those with anomic aphasia Most recovery occurred in the first 3 months with some additional recovery over next 12 months some evidence for younger patients having better recovery Language areas most resistant to damage we're function partly mediated by the RH

What is the expected recovery from aphasia?

Age because younger patients = more recovery Sex and handedness because differences are produced in cerebral organization that influence the outcome Intelligence because higher intelligence and well-educated = more recovery Personality because optimistic extroverted and easy going patients = more recovery

What variables affect recovery?

Asked to describe shortest legal route between two locations, and to describe famous landmarks not in London that they had not ever visited These spatial tasks activated the: Occipitotemporal area Medial parietal cortex Posterior cingulate cortex Parahippocampal gyrus Right hippocampus

What was the study of the London Taxi Drivers?

the results have contributed to identifying and mapping neocortical language zones during surgery

What were results of Penfield's study?

Ward and Frackiowack (2006) Nudo and colleagues (1997) Bucy and Colleagues (1964)

What were the studies associated with the benefits of therapy

activation in the left inferofrontal cortex

When a person is retrieving meaningful information there is..

Pruning

When applied to brain development, the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die.

somatic marker hypothesis

When confronted with a stimulus of biological importance, the brain and body change Reductions in body reactions lead to reduced intensity of emotion Emotion is fundamental to survival Emotion is necessary for rationale decisions

When it is disconnected from the LH it appears in the left hand When it is disconnected from the RH it appears in the right hand

When does apraxia occur?

activation in the region of the premotor cortex

When naming tools there is..

R.L Sustained severe whiplash in a car accident; no longer is able to read, impaired verbal abilities --spells of apraxia

Who is patient R.L?

topographic memory

ability to move through space from one place to the next

Insula

area under Sylvia fissure gustatory cortex auditory association cortex

Projection fibers

ascending fibers to neocortex and descending fibers from neocortex

Individualized Neuropsychological assessment

assessments more qualitative than quantitative

glial development

begins after neuronal birth and continues through life

Composite Neuropsychological assessment

between standardized and individualized batteries; looks at qualitative performance on a number of tests

speaking

bilateral activation in the motor areas while....

Callosal agenesis

born without a corpus callosum can be partial or complete impairments differ between people likely due to genetic mutation so no guidance for axons to go across

Hemiplegic migraine and opthalmologic migraine

both relatively rare loss of movement of eyes and of the limbs on one side

conscious processing

bottom-up vs top-down processing

word deafness

cannot hear or repeat words

progenitor cells

cells of the ventricular zone that divide and give rise to cells of the CNS

lexicon

collection of all words in a given language

Plasticity

common to all nervous systems, and the principles are conserved

Commisural fibers

connect the two hemispheres

Orientation tests

evaluate comprehension of element arrangement

boundary expansion

expansion of space between object and the frame

Virtual-reality (VR)

exposure therapy now used prior to stress exposure for soldiers, police, firefighters, other first responders to prevent PTSD from developing

neuroeconomics

how the brain makes decisions

left temporal lobe lesions

impaired recall of verbal memory

Topographic agnosia

inability to identify individual landmarks to orient themselves

Alexia

inability to read

Agraphia

inability to write

Narcolepsy

inappropriate and overwhelming attack of sleep

HSAM (highly superior autobiographical memory)

incredible memory ability -- can completely recall events in their lives (including weather and social events

Ventral stream of visual information

inferotemporal cortex or area TE(von economy's designation Broadmann's area 20,21,37 and 38)

Drug induced Parkinson's

ingestion of major tranquilizers contaminant of synthetic heroin (MPTP) Environmental toxins Symptoms usually reversible

automatic processing

innate property training

Global aphasia

labored speech, poor comprehension

discontinuity theory

language evolved rapidly and appeared suddenly

little or no recovery of function

lesions after age 5

lesions show greater impairments

lesions before 1 year of age

followed by some reorganization of brain function some rescue of language function

lesions between ages 1 and 5

Experience-expectant plasticity

occurs mostly during development

Convergent thinking

only one answer to the question

hemiplegia

paralysis of one side of the body, usually caused by stroke

Savant

person who has an intellectual disability but also has a special ability in math, memory or music

Neurologist

physician specializing in the treatment of nervous system disorders

Cerebellum

plays a role in classical conditioning Lesions to the __________ abolish conditioned responses to a puff of air to the eye

Tourette's syndrome

problem with the nervous system that causes people to make sudden movements or sounds, called tics, that are uncontrollable

experience dependent plasticity

reflects brain changes necessary to modify already present neuronal ensembles

syntax

rules of grammar

Superior temporal sulcus (STS)

separates superior and middle temporal gyri subregion of multimodal cortex (or polymodal) cortex separated from frontal and parietal regions and from the paralympic cortex Receives input from auditory, visual, and somatic regions

Myasthenia Gravis

severe muscular weakness; muscular fatigue after little effort caused by insufficient acetylcholine receptors on muscles more common in women (usually 30s)

The Stroop test

task is to name color of ink & inhibit reading the word

two

there are ___ general types of plasticity that are derived from experience

Cerebral Arteriosclerosis

thickening and hardening of the arteries

PTSD (post traumatic stress disorder)

trigged by traumatic events 1 in 6 Iraq/Aghan war veterans developed symptoms

the left inferior frontal lobe, posterior temporal cortex, anterior cingulate and cerebellum

verb generation activates...

prosody

vocal intonations "tone of voice"

Tanaka and colleagues (1996)

· Cells in area TE require complex features for activation o Color, size, orientation, and texture · Cells with similar selectivity cluster in vertical columns · Visual imagery or Working Memory? · Specificity of neurons is altered by experience Monkeys trained to discriminate 28 complex shapes. 39% of inferotemporal cells gave max response compared to 9% in naïve monkeys

Biological motion

· Movements relevant to a species · Allow us to guess others' intentions · Social Cognition, or "theory of mind," allows us to develop hypotheses about people

Schneider (2005) study

· Musicians have a larger volume of gray and white matter in Heschl's gyrus (primary auditory cortex) in both temporal lobes o Greater the aptitude the larger the gray matter volume · Fundamental-pitch listeners exhibit leftward asymmetry · Spectral-pitch listeners exhibit rightward asymmetry · All asymmetries, regardless of musical training, are possibly innate

David and colleagues (1990)

· STS cells are maximally responsive to particular types of biological motion o Direction of eye gaze o Head movement and facial expression o Mouth movement—vocalizations

Hassan and colleagues (2004)

· Used fMRI to monitor cortical activity while participants view a film · Findings: o Extensive activity in the auditory and visual regions in the temporal lobe, in the STS, and in cingulate regions o Selective activation to precise moment-to-moment film content § A large expanse of the human cortex is stereotypically responsive to naturalistic audiovisual stimuli