Ch. 4

where does fiber pass through undigested?

GI tract

where is galactose found?

as part of the disaccharide lactose found in milk and milk products. found in cereals, beans, nuts, seeds, and vegetables, contain slight amounts of galactose, but it is in the form of fiber that is resistant to digestion.

what do the three disaccharides have in common?

at least one of their monosacharides is glucose.

why are simple carbs sweeter than complex?

because the five sided ring of fructose mixes with saliva and reacts with taste buds, signaling the brain that the food is sweet.

what does carb-rich foods help maintain?

blood glucose levels.

functional fiber

The nondigestible polysaccharides that are added to foods because of a specific desired effect on health.

hypoglycemia

a blood glucose level that drops to lower than 70 mg/dl.

what doe plant foods contain?

both soluble and insoluble forms of dietary fiber.

amylase does what with the carbohydrate?

breaking down some of the amylose and the amylopectin in the bread into the disaccharide maltose.

soluble fibers are easily fermented how?

by intestinal bacteria.

whole grains are abundant in what?

complex carbs. associated with the reduced risk of several chronic diseases.

type 1 diabetes

considered an autoimmune disease and is the rarer of the two main forms. begins in childhood. the immune system in people with type 1 destroys the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas.

high levels of fat in the blood and a decreased sensitivity to insulin

considered risk factors for heart disease. soluble fibers may decrease the risk for heart disease. insoluble fiber may also promote heart health.

key to manage diabetes

control. exercise, diet, injections, monitoring, lifestyle and nurtition. well-balanced diet.

epinephrine

a hormone produced by the adrenal glads that signals the liver cells to release glucose; also referred to as the "fight or flight" hormone.

norepinephrine

a hormone produced by the adrenal glads that stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.

galactose

a monosaccharide that links with glucose to create the disaccharide found in dairy foods

glycemic index (GI)

a rating scale of the likelihood of foods to increase the levels of blood glucose and insulin

disaccharides and starch are digested into what?

digested into monosaccharides that can easily be absorbed through the walls of the small intestine

what is starch resistant to?

digestion. in beans half of the starch is digestible and the remainder is in the form of resistant starch.

problem with using the GI

doesn't take into account the amount of carbohydrate consumed.

simple carbohydrates consist of

either a single sugar unit (monosaccharide) or two units bonded together (disaccharide)

fiber

food components that humans cannot digest. most are carbohydrates

most commonly added sugars to foods

fructose and sucrose

disaccharides maltose, lactose, and sucrose need what?

further dismantling by the brush border enzymes, including maltase lactase and sucrase housed in the microvilli of the small intestine. these enzymes bread down the disaccharides into monosaccharides, specifically glucose, fructose, and galactose. monosaccharides can then be absorbed into the blood

insulin helps do what?

glucose enter cells, convert glucose to glycogen if the amount of glucose in the body exceeds the body's immediate energy needs. it does this by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. body will store excess glucose as glycogen until it reaches its limit.

three nutritionally importance monosaccharides

glucose, fructose, and galactose.

to avoid diabetes

good diet, being active. lifestyle change.

why are sugars added to foods?

in baked goods, they can hold onto water which helps keep the product moist and they help turn pastries a golden brown color. Sugars function as preservatives and thickeners in foods such as sauces. Fermenting sugars in dough produce the carbon dioxide that makes yeast breads rise.

where is fructose found?

in fruits, the sweetest of the natural sugars, and is also known as fruit sugars.

all forms of diabetes involve?

insulin and unregulated blood glucose levels. some are due to insuline resisetance and others are due to a lack of insulin production.

as soon as glucose enters in the cell

insulin stimulates the enzymes that will convert glucose to ATP or store it as glycogen for later use.

what two hormones in particular maintain blood glucose levels between 70 and 110?

insulin, glucagon, secreted from the pancreas.

insulin inhibits

lipolysis by reducing the activity of the enzyme that hydrolyzes stored fat. result of insulin's actions is that more fat is formed and fewer fatty acids are found in the blood.

nuts and seeds

little starch but good fiber.

maltose does?

malt sugar, least common of the monosaccharides and is formed during the digestion of starch. manufacturers add maltose as a sweetener and to improve the shelf life of their products.

types of sugar substitutes

provide the sweet taste of sugar for fewer kilocalories and American's consumption of these products has increased steadily over the last two decades. polyols, saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame-K, sucralose, rebaudioside A, neotame. don't promote dental caries and have the added advantage of not affecting blood glucose levels at all.

common oligosaccharides

raffinose and stachyose

enriched grains

refined grain foods that have folic acid, thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, and iron added

cortisol and growth hormone

regulates glucose metabolism. cortisol often referred to as the stress hormone, stimulates gluconeogenesis and reduces the uptake of glucose by the muscle cells. both of these actions increase blood glucose levels.

are blood glucose levels constant?

rise and fall depending on the body's energy needs.

diabetics and meals

should not skip meals

Monosaccharides

simple sugar that consists of a single sugar unit. the three most common monosaccharides: glucose, fructose, and galactose.

naturally occurring sugars

sugars such as fructose and lactose that are found naturally in foods.

added sugars

sugars that are added to processed foods and sweets

foods with a lot of adde sugar?

tend to provide high amounts of kilocalories but little else.

testing?

testing for diabetes should be done every three yeaars for those who are 45+

glycogenesis

the process of assembling excess glucose into glycogen in the liver and muscle cells

lipogenesis

the process that converts excess glucose into fat for storage.

slow moving soluble fibers can also reduce what?

the rate at which fat and carbs are absorbed from the meals. delayed absorption can lower the surge of fat in the blood after a meal, and may help improve sensitivity to the hormone insulin.

what can a low blood glucose level trigger?

the release of both epinephrine and norepinephrine.

what doe high blood glucose levels stimulate?

the release of insulin from the beta cells of the pancreas.

once glucose and galactose are absorbed into the enterocyte?

they diffuse into the capillaries and are transported through the portal vein to the liver.

how is a disaccharide created?

when two monosaccharides are joined together.

germ

The vitamin-rich embryo, or seed, of a grain.

condensation

a chemical reaction in which two molecules combine to form a larger molecule, and water is released.

resistant starch

a type of starch that is not digested in the GI tract but has important health benefits in the large intestine

resistant starch can what?

be metabolized by intestinal bacteria or excreted in the feces.

examples of sucrose

brown sugar, granulated sugar, found naturally in sugar cane and sugar beets and is most commonly used natural sweetener.

how does glucoagon stimulate glucose production?

by encouraging the uptake of amino acids by the liver.

packaged and processed foods

can be good sources of starch and fiber, but can also contain high amounts of added sugar, fat, kilocalories, salt and should generally be consumed in moderation.

fruits and vegetables that are rich in pectin and hemicellulose?

can be hydrolyzed by these bacteria to form carbon dioxide, methane, and some fatty acids.

saccharin

can casue cancer in the bladder potentially. they say can safely consume in moderation

during photosynthesis plants use?

chlorophyll in their leaves to absorb the energy in the sunlight.

how else do blood glucose levels change?

follow a carbohydrate-heavy meal.

are simple carbohydrates sweeter than complex?

foods such as table sugar and fruit are perceived as sweet compared with the carbohydrates found in starchy foods such as rice or bread.

gestational diabetes

form of diabetes that may develop during pregnancy in women who have not been diagnosed as diabetic prior to the pregnancy.

fiber and diabetes

getting fiber helps reduce chance of diabetes. viscous fibers slow the release of food from the stomach and thus slow down the digestion and absorption of glucose.

energy we need to fuel our activities comes from?

glucose and fats.

How does the body regulate blood glucose levels, given the changes in metabolic needs and dietary intake?

hormones

What is the difference between the three monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, and galactose)

how their atoms are arranged.

the biproduct of the incomplete breakdown of fat?

ketone bodies- are created and spill out into theblod.

empty calories

kilocalories thta provide little nutrition such as those found in candy

milk allergy vs. lactose intolerance

lactose intolerance is not the same as having an allergy to milk. a milk allergy is a response by the immune system to one or more of the proteins in cow's milk.

after 18 hours of fasting?

liver glycogen is depleted and the body will begin to look for other sources, mostly stored fat, to meet the body's energy needs.

aging and lactose intolerance?

many people develop it, and it's a reduction to digest lactose. as soon as a child stops nursing, his body makes less lactase.

Polysaccharides

many sugar units combined. Starch, glycogen, and fiber are all polysaccharides.

individuals who experience hypoglycemia

may feel hungry, nervouse, dizzy, light-headed, confused, weak, and shaky, and even begin to sweat.

lactose

milk sugar- present in milk and dairy products. only carbohydrates babies consume in breast milk.

can fiber be digested?

no and it passess through the intestines tract. fiber does not provide energy but does add bulk. helps maintain a healthy intestinal tract, reduces hunger, and is an essential componenet of a healthy diet

pectin

soluble fiber; found in citrus fruits, prunes, legumes; reduces the risk of constipation, heart disease, diabetes mellitus, obesity

beta-glucan

soluble fiber; found in oats, barley, quinoa, teff, reduces risk of constipation, HD, Diabetes, and obesity

gums

soluble fiber; found in sorghum, flax seeds, brussels; reduces the risk of constipation, HD, diabetes mellitus, obesity

psyllium

soluble fiber; found in sprouts and carrots; reduces rsik of Const, HD, diabetes, and obesity

what does absorbed energy doe with water?

splits water in the plant to its component parts of hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen then joins with the carbon dioxide that the plant has taken in from the air to form glucose

what is glycogen?

storage form found in animals (including humans), not in plants.

all carbohydrates consist of what?

string units bound together. we classify carbohydrates according to how many of these units are in the string.

the three disaccharides?

sucrose, lactose, maltose

what doe teh branched structures enable?

the body to break glycogen down quickly and easily because there are so many sites where enzymes can attach.

what do they lack?

the enzyme necessary to break apart the bonds in oligosaccharides and they pass undigested into the large intestine, where the intestinal microflora digest and ferment them. the fermentation can result in bloating discomfort and gas.

diverticulosis

the existence of diverticula in the lining of the large instestine or colon

insulin

the hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas that stimulates the uptake of glucose from the blood into the cells.

glycogenolysis

the hydrolysis of glycogen to release glucose

describe the oligosaccharide?

classified as complex carbs. short chains of three to ten monosaccharides that are similar in lenght to simple carbohydrates. similar to polysaccharides in that they make up part of plant cells walls, and like fiber most of the oligosaccharides we consume escape digestions.

what should people with diabetes consume?

combination of predominantly high-fiber carbohydrates from whole grains, fruits, and vegetables, along with low-fat milk, adequate amounts of lean protein and unsaturated fats. need regular mealtimes and rich nutrient foods.

how is maltose formed?

during the fermentation of barley used to brew beer.

to restore nutrition lost from refined grains?

enriched grains have folic acid, thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, and iron added back after the milling process. but fiber and teh phytochemical are lost.

glucagon

the hormone secreted from the alpha cells of the pancreas that stimulates the glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to teh increase blood levels of glucose.

bran

the indigestible outer shell of the grain kernel

when blood glucose levels decrease?

the liver breaks down the stored glycogen branches, one glucose molecule at a time, and releases the glucose into the blood.

what does GI refer to?

the measured upward rise peak and eventual fall of blood glucose following the consumption of a high carbohydrate food. some foods cause a sharp spike and rapid fall in blood glucose levels. others cause less of a spike and a more gradual decline.

after two days of fasting?

the number of ketone bodies in the blood doubles, which results in an unhealthy state of ketosis.

when blood glucose levels drop below normal?

the pancreas stops releasing insulin until the blood glucose returns to normal.

glucose

the primary monosaccharide and the primary energy source for the body

endosperm

the starchy inner portion of a cereal grain

fructose

the sweetest of all the monosaccharides; also known as fruit sugar or levulose

fiber and heart disease

viscous, soluble fibers have been shown to help lower elevated blood cholesterol levels, which may decrease the risk of heart disease. viscous fiber is believed to interfere with the reabsorption of bile acids in the intestines.

what does body use stored glucose for?

when diet lacks sufficient carbohydrates.

when do we consume the stored glucose?

when we eat plant foods such as corn, rice, and potatoes.

are disaccharides and fiber not altered in the motuh

yes

chlorophyll

Green pigment in plants that absorbs light energy used to carry out photosynthesis

glycosidic bond

a bond that forms when two sugar molecules are joined together during condensation

amylopectin

a branched chain of polysaccharides found in starch

complex carbohydrates

a category of carbohydrates that contain many sugar units combined. oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates

insoluble fibers and constipation

a diet full of insoluble fibers like bran whole grains and many fruits and vegetables contribute to the bulk of feces, which stretches the circular muslces in the large intestine, thus reducing the transit time in the colon and decreasing the likelihood of constipation.

what is lactose intolerance?

a digestive disorder with symtoms of bloating, gas, cramps, and diarrhea. people who are lactose intolerant have a deficiency of the brush border enzyme lactase, and they cannot properly digest lactose, the principle carbohydrate found in dairy products.

sucrose

a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose; also known as table sugar.

lactose

a disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose; also known as milk sugar

maltose

a disaccharide composed of two glucose units joined together

fiber and obesity

a fiber rich diet can be a key factor in the fight against obesity. fiber helps you feel fuller. reduces the need to eat. full more.

cortisol

a hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that stimulates gluconeogenesis and liplysis

growth hormone

a hormone that regulates glucose metabolism by increasing glycogenolysis and liplysis

why is whole grain important?

a kernel of grain like wheat or oats include three edible parts: the bran, the endosperm, and the germ. whole grain foods contain all three parts of the grain.

lignin

a noncarbohydrate form of dietary fiber that binds to cellulose fibers to harden and strengthen the cell walls of plants

cellulose

a nondigestible polysaccharide found in plant cell walls.

Photosynthesis

a process by which plants create carbohydrates using the energy from sunlight

hormone insulin

a protein and is digestible by the GI tract, so it can't be taken orally. most individuals have to inject insulin directly into their fat or muscle tissue with a syringe.

prediabetes

a simple blood test at a physician's office can reveal if a person's blood glucose is higher than normal and whether he or she has impaired glucose tolerance. blood is drawn for the test. when the person is in a prediabetic state, damage may already be occurring to the heart and circulatory system.

amylose

a straight chain of polysaccharides found in starch

hexose

a sugar that contains six carbons; glucose, galactose, and fructose are all hexoses.

soluble fiber

a type of fiber that dissolves in water and is fermented by intestinal bacteria. many soluble fibers are viscous and have thickening properties

functional fiber

a type of fiber that has been extracted or isolated from a plant or manufactured by the food industry, and has been shown to have health benefits

insoluble fiber

a type of fiber that isn't dissolved in water or fermented by intestinal bacteria

chain shape of amylopectin does what?

allows for much easier digestion and makes it impossible to compact.

some symptoms you may experience when your blood glucose level dips too low?

anxiety, rapid heart beat, turning pale, shakiness. - caused by release of both epinephrine and norepinephrine

where are oligosaccharides found?

beans, legumes, cabbage, brussel sprouts and broccoli.

consuming too much fiber initially?

can cause fluid imbalance or lead to mineral deficiencies by reducing the absorption and increasing the excretion of minerals such as iron and zinc, especially when the diet is low in tehse minerals or needs to have temporarily increased. gradually increase fiber in diet.

Diabetic Keotacidosis (DKA)

can cause naseau and confusion and if left untreated could result in coma or death. occurs when insulin is lacking in the body. this is life threatening

resistant starch can improve health how?

can improve the health of the digestive tract by increasing bulk; improving glucose intolerance by lowering the glycemic impact on the blood and increasing insulin sensitivity and stimulate hte growth of beneficial intestinal bacteria.

if ketosis is left unchecked?

can increase the acidity in your blood and lead to liver and kidney problems.

fasting hypoglycemia

can occur in the morning, after overnight fasting. can occur between long stretches betwen meals or after exercise.

psyllium

can relieve constipation. psyllium's water-attracting capability allows the stool to increase in bulk and form a gel-like, soft texture, which makes it easier to pass.

simple carbohydrate

carbohydrates that consist of one sugar unit (monosaccharides) or two sugar units (disaccharides)

disaccharides condensation

chemically links monosaccharides with either an alpha or a beta glycosidic bond.

stored forms of both carbs and fats?

come in handy between meals when you aren't eating, but the body continues to need fuel.

sucrose is what?

consists of glucose and fructose

lactose is what?

consists of glucose and galactose

what does undigested lactose do?

draw water into the digestive tract, causing diarrhea.

insulin helps glucose what?

enter cells by attaching to specific receptor sites on the cell membrane, which stimulates an increase in the number of glucose transporters found on the membrane surface.

what other hormones can increase blood glucose levels?

epinephrine and norepinephrine- both secreted from the adrenal glands, act on the liver to stimulate glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to raise blood glucose.

what else assists in maintaining blood glucose levels?

epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, and growth hormones to assist with the process.

once the glycogen stores are fully replenished and the diet contains sufficient kilocalories to meet energy?

excess glucose is converted into glycerol and fatty acids. these two are combined into a triglyceride and stored in the adipocytes (fat cells).

when glycogen stores are full

excess glucose may be converted into fatty acids in a process called lipogenesis.

fructose is absorbed by what?

facilitated diffusion, requires no energy and is slower to be absorbed than glucose or galactose.

what happens with the refined grains?

found in wheat and white bread and white rice- it goes through a milling process that strips out the bran and germ, leaving only the endosperm of the kernel in the end product. as a result, some thought not all of the B vitamins, iron, phytochemicals and dietary fiber are removed, resulting in a more rapid rise in blood glucose and an increased demand for insulin.

muscle glycogen can similarly be broken down into?

glucose to provide energy for the muscle.

whole fruits and vegetables

good sources of simple and complex carbs. fresh fruit also rich in simple sugars including fructose and glucose. skins of fruit help with fiber. vegetable skins also good for fiber.

refined grains

grain foods that are made with only the endosperm of the kernel. the bran and germ have bene removed during milling.

whole grains

grain goods that are made with the entire edible grain kernel: the bran, the endosperm, and the germ

linear chains of amylose?

harder to break down during digestion because the molecules stack together into tight granules, which hinders thte ability of enzymes to reach and break down the bonds.

growth hormone does?

has opposite effect of insulin: it conserves glucose by stimulating fat breakdown for energy, reducing the updake of glucose by the muscle cells and increasing glucose production in the liver.

if sugars appear first of second on the list?

high in sugar.

what are carbohydrates literally?

hydrated carbons.

some medications illnesses certain tumors hormone imbalance or drinking too much alcohol can cause

hypoglycemia.

exercise?

important, improves inslin sensitivity. muslces take up glucose at more than 20 times the normal rate when you're sedentary which lowers blood glucose levels. keeps glucose helathy. lowes blood pressure, blood lipids, burns kilocalories, improves sleep, strengthens muscles and bones, and quality of life.

where does glycogenesis occur?

in the liver and muscle cells.

where does gluconeogenesis occur?

in the liver, but acan also take place in the kidneys because these are the only organs that contain the enzymes needed for this process.

where does digestion of the carbohydrate start?

in the mouth, where the teeth grind the sandwich and mix it with saliva, which contains the enzyme salivary amylase.

complex carbohydrates include

include more than ten and up to hundreds or thousands of connected units.

insoluble fiber health benefits

increase bulk of stool. gret stool weight stimulates peristalsis, which sppeds up the movement of the feces through the intestinal tract.

transit time

increase in movement that relieves constipation and keeps the gastrointestinal tract healthy.

cause of gestational diabetes

ineffectiveness of insulin because of pregnancy related hormones. need a healthy diet to prevent need for cesarean section.

diverticulitis

infection of the diverticula.

hemicellulose

insoluble fiber; found in amaranth, bran, bulgur, couscous; reduces risk of certain cancers, heart disease, obesity

lignins

insoluble fiber; found in oats, rice, quinoa sorghum, fruit, vegetables, and legumes; reduces the risk of constipation, diverticulosis, certain cancers, heart disease, obesity

cellulose

insoluble fiber; found in whole grains and whole grain cereals; reduces risk of constipation, diverticulosis, certain cancers, heart disease, obesity

under the control of glucagon

liver glycogen stores will be depleted after 10 to 18 hours without sufficient diertary carbohydrates.

which organs don't need insulin as an aid?

liver, kidney, and brain cells

the main target organ of glucagon

liver, where it promotes glycogenolysis to release a burst of glucose into the blood.

the molecules of glycogen

long, branched chains and are stored in muscles nad in teh liver.

what does the slight rearrangement between the monosaccharides mean?

makes a difference in the way the body metabolizes and uses these two monosaccharides.

role of stimulating the uptake of glucose by the cells is what?

makes the insulin so integral to blood glucose regulation.

after carbohydrate digestion?

monosaccharides are absorbed into the intestinal cell mucosa. Glucose and galactose are absorbed by active transport, which requires energy and a carrier protein.

do animal products have glycogen?

no because it breaks down quickly after an animal dies.

does the body store extra protein?

no, not to provie fuel during times of deprivation. instead the body dismatles protein from the muscles and organs to generate the needed glucose.

dietary fiber

nondigestible polysaccharides and occur naturally as a structural component called cellulose in the cell walls of plants.

does fructose raise blood glucose levels?

not as quickly as glucose.

once the lactose reaches the colon?

the bacteria in the colon ferment the sugar and produce various gases, and the resulting uncomfortable symptoms.

once liver glycogen stores are depleted?

the body turns to other sources, such as amino acids from protein and glycerol found in stored fat, to maintain blood glucose.

under most conditions, glucose is the sole energy source for what?

the brain, which requires a steady supply of glucose to function properly.

ketone bodies

the by-products of the incomplete breakdown of fat

what do the transporters unlock?

the cell membrane and transport glucose inside the cell.

ketosis

the condition of increased ketone bodies in the blood

Gluconeogenesis

the creation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources, predominantly protein

what does the glycosidic bond affect?

the digestibility of the disaccharide.

glycogen

the storage form of glucose in animals, including humans

starch

the storage form of glucose in plants

examples of foods with a lot of starch

unripe bananas, pasta, raw potates, baked beans, plantains

when does diabetes develop?

when individuals either produce an inadequate amount of insulin and/or develop insulin resistance, such that their cells do not respond to the insuline when it arrives. then the bloodstream is flooded with glucose that can't get into the cells.

how many kilocalories of energy per gram do carbs provide?

when you consume carbohydrate, whether it is in the form of monosaccharide and disaccharide or polysaccharide, the digested carbohydrate provides 4 kilos.

lactose is formed how?

with a beta bond. they lack the enzyme necessary to break the glucose and galactose apart during digestion, some individuals have trouble digesting lactose.

sucrose and maltose are formed how?

with an alpha bond and are easily digested

intake dietary fiber how?

with ancient whole grains like quinoa, teff, amaranth, and sorghum

are oligosaccharides present in breast milk?

yes, even though these carbohydrates aren't digested, they may stimulate the immune system and increase the amount of healthy intestinal microflora in newborn infants.

in poorly managed diabetes, when glucose is unable to get into the cells

acidic ketone bodies build up in the blood to dangerous levels, causing ketoacidosis

what are most ketone bodies?

acids and reduce the pH of the blood making it slightly acidic.

glycemic load

adjusts the GI to take into account the amount of carbohydrate consumed in a typical serving of a food, and in the case of puffed wheat cereal, the normal portion size has a dramatically lower effect on blood glucose.

when is the kidney an active site of gluconeogenesis?

after long periods of fasting

by the time the remnants of a sandwich reach the large intestine?

all starch and simple sugars have been broken down and absorbed and only the fiber remains. bacteria in the colon can metabolize some of the fiber, producing water gas and some short chain fatty acids. The colon uses these short-chain fatty acids for energy. majority of the fiber is eliminated from the body in the feces.

constant exposure to high blood glucose levels

can damage vital organs overtime. increases the likelihood of a multitude of health effects such as nerve damage, leg and foot amputations, eye diseases, blindness, tooth loss, gum problems, kidney disease, heart disease. nerve damage can affect the ability to feel a change in temperature or pain in the legs and feet. a cut or sore on the foot could go unnoticed until it becomes infected. the poor blood circulation common in persons with diabetes can also make it harder for sores or infections to heal. can damage the tiny blood vessels in the retina of the eye, which can cause bleeding and cloudy vision, and eventually destroy the retina and cause blindness. if kidneys are damaged, protein can leak into the urine and cause a backup of wastes in the blood.

reactive hypoglycemia

can experience within four hours after a meal. cause is not known. some can be overlysensitve to epinephrine which is released when the blood glucose level begins to drop.

major problems with type 2 diabetes

can go undiagnosed for some time. some may have the symptoms of fatigue, blurred vision, and increased thirst and urination; others may not have any symptoms at all. diabetes can damage a person's vital organs without their being aware of it.

use of muscle protein?

can have negative consequences for the body.

fiber and cancer

can have protective effects. fiber binds to the estrogen in bile and then eliminates the estrogen in the feces. leading to lower estrogen levels in the blood (for breast cancer.) colorectal cancer reduced with more fiber. keeps things moving to less contac iwth the intestinal lining. fiber encourages growth of friendly bacteria.

type 2 diabees

more common type. overweight increases the risk of diabetes. these people initially produced insulin but have become insulin resistant. prompts the pancreas to overproduce insulin in order to compensate.

what does glucose do?

most abundant monosaccharide in the body. The brain in particular relies on glucoseand its main source of ATP as do the red blood cells and nerve cells.

fructose and galactose are found?

naturally in foods. all three simple sugars share the same molecular formula of six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms referred to as a hexose.

when the bloodstream is flooded with glucose that can't get into the cells?

the body shifts into fasting mode. the liver begins the process of breaking down its glycogen stores (glycogenolysis) and making glucose from noncarbohydrate sources in an attempt to provide glucose to the cells. this floods teh blood with even more glucose. eventually the level of glucose builds up in the blood and some of it spills over into the urine.

as bacteria grows in the mouth

they produce acids that erode the enamel of the teeth. the sickier the carb the longer it is in contact with the teeth and teh more opportunity there is for the bacteria to produce their damaging acids. hard candies and dried fruits are more harmful than foods that are quickly swallowed such as whole fruits and vegetables.

where do plants store glucose?

they store it in chains of starch. These chains can be hundreds or even thousands of glucose units long.

oligosaccharides

three to ten units of monosaccharides combined

what do carbohydrates play a role in?

tooth decay

maltose is what?

two glucose units linked together

eating or drinking carbohydrate rich foods stimulate?

(carb rich foods are hard candies, juice, soda) will stimulate insulin release and quickly raise the blood glucose level to a normal range. more severe reactions to hypoglycemia can cause seizures, coma, and even death

minimum amount of carbohydrates daily?

130 grams of carbs needed dialy to support brain and nerve function and to efficiently meet its energy needs.

although plants contain both forms of amylose and amylopectic polysaccharides....

60% of most starches is usually amylopectin with the remainder in the form of amylose.

aspartame

Schlatter- discovered by conducting reaseach on amino acids in his quest to find a treatment for ulcers. licked his finger to pick up a piece of paper and found a compound. composed of two amino acids- modified aspartic acid and phenylalanine. Enzymes in the digestive track break down aspartame into its component parts and the amino acids are absorbed. says ok in moderation

bile acids

contain cholesterol and are secreted into the intestine by the gall bladder to hel with the digestion of fat. the bile acids are grabbed by the fiber before the body can reabsorb them. they end up being excreted along with the fiber in the feces. the liver then removes the cholesterol from the blood to replace the acids that were lost. blood cholesterol levels are then low.

fate of the monosaccharide once they've reached the liver?

depends on an individual's metabolic need. liver uses galactose and fructose mostly for energy. they can be converted into glucose before entering the blood to circulate throughout the body. any surplus glucose that is not used immediately for energy is stored as glycogen

whole grains are potentially fighting what?

disease fighting allies. as little as one serving of whole grains daily may help lower the risk of dying from heart disease or cancer, reduce the risk of stroke, and improve intestinal health and improve body weight. can reduce risk of diabetes with the fiber

then where does the starch go?

down the mouth and it is broken down until the hydrochloric acid in the stomach deactivate this enzyme. there are no carbohydrate digesting enzymes in teh stomach. thus little to no carb digestion takes place there.

foods that contain naturally occurring sugar tend to be?

nutrient dense and thus provide more nutrition per serving.

amylose in starch is more resistant than?

amylopectin.

continuous exposure to undigested lactose promotes?

an acidic environment created by the fermenting of lactose by the bacteria in the colon, which inhibits further fermentation.

constant presence of lactose in the colon perpetuates?

an increase in the growth of nongaseous bacteria and subsequent displacement of the gas-producing bacteria

what is the body's preferred fuel source?

as long as there is adequate glucose in the blood, protein can be spared for its many other essential functions.

metabolic syndrome

associated with insulin resistance. cluster of symptoms found in cardiovascular disease, including elevated fasting blood glucose and blood lipids, high blood pressure and obesity, characterizes this syndrome. the same risk factors of metabolic syndrome, such as eating a poor diet, obesity and lack of exercise are also risk factors.

why is fructose still classified as a hexose?

because it contains six carbons.

why can epinephrine production increase in the body?

because of fear, excitement and bleeding. helps provide fuel for "flight or fight"

muslce glycogen cannot be used to raise?

blood glucose levels because muscles lack the enzyme necessary to release glucose into the blood. instead muscle uses glycogen to fuel its own energy needs.

if you haven't eaten for longer than 4 hours?

blood glucose levels drops too low and the body will tap its glycogen stoers by initiating glycogenolysis to hydrolyze liver glycogen and supply glucose ot the blood.

after eating a carb-heavy meal?

blood is flooded with glucose, which cannot be used by the cells until it crosses the cell membrane.

what else happens when the glucose is overflooding the blood?

body has called on its energy reserve-fat- to be used as fuel. The body needs glucose in order to thoroughly burn fat; otherwise, it makes ketone bodies.

when carbohydrates are low?

body turns to noncarbohydrate sources, particularly amino acids to generate glucose.

ketaacidosis vs. ketosis

1) occurs when insulin is lacking in the body, and is dfiferent from the conditions of ketosis, which can develop in individuals who are fasting or consuming a low-carbohydrate diet

talk about diabetes

8% of population have diabetes. diabetes is rising among children. over 200,000 americans die from diabetic complications annually, 7th leading cause of death in the US.

salivary amylase

A digestive enzyme that begins breaking down carbohydrate (starch) in the mouth; other important enzymes during carbohydrate digestion include pancreatic amylase, maltase, sucrase, and lactase.

Are all carbohydrates created equal?

not created equal, and some carbohydrate-rich foods are nutritionally better than others. Whole intact foods including grains fruits vegetables beans deliver vitamins minerals fiber and a host of phytochemicals. Refined high carbohydrate foods lack these nutrients and contain considerbly higher amounts of kilocalories than others which can lead to weight gain.

soluble fibers have?

numerous health benefits. gels formed by soluble fibers slow gastric emptying and may delay the abosroption of some nutrients, which helps to reduce serum cholesterol, improve apetite control, and normalize blood glucose levels.

common symptoms associated with undiagnosed or untreated diabetes

obsessive, uncontrollable thirst, excessive urination, and a strong desire to eat, blurred vision constantly, hunger, weight loss, and fatigue because glucose can't get into the cells of the body

those who need to ingest dairy foods?

part of a healthy calcium-rich diet can ingest lactose-reduced diary products such as milk, cottage cheese, and ice cream.

what do soluble fibers include?

pectins; beta-glucans, gums, mucilages.

Carbohydrates provides what?

primarily glucose....provides about half of the energy used by the muscles and other tissues; the rest of the energy you use each day comes mostly from fats.

what do plants use glucose for?

produce directly for energy, store it, or combine it with minerals from the soil to make other compounds including proteins and vitamins. We then eat the plants and digest, absorb, and utilize the glucose

carbon skeletons of amino acids are then used to do what?

produce glucose through the gluconeogenesis. Glucagon promotes the conversion of lactic acid to glucose through the same process.

glucose is the only source of energy used by?

red blood cells and the primary fuel soruce for the brain. for this reason carbs are the most desirable source of energy for the body.

different types of diabetes

result from the inability of the body to make or properly use hormone insulin. insulin directs glucose into the cells to be used as immediate energy or stored for later use.

legumes

rich source of starch and dietary fiber

fructose contains?

same number of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms as glucose and galactose but its molecular structure is arranged as a five sided, rather than six-sided, ring.

high carbohydrate foods are high in what?

saturated fat and can be unhealthy for teh heart. best food choices are nutrient dense low saturated fat foods with low to moderate amounts of simple carbs and higher amounts of fiber and other complex carbs.

the method insulin uses to promote lipogenesis

similar to the way it promotes glycogenesis: by increasing the number of glucose receptors on the surface of the fat cell.

disaccharide

simple sugar that consists of two sugar unites combined. The three most common disaccharides: sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

arrival of the polysaccharides in the small intestine doe what?

singals the pancreas to release an enzyme called pancreatic amylase. the pancreatic amylase breaks down the remaining starch from the bread into the maltose.

why does fructose stay in the intestinal lining longer than glucose?

slower to be absorbed with facilitated diffusion

diverticula

small bulges at weak spots in the colon wall

the carrier that helps transport glucose and galactose into the enterocyte?

sodium dependent

fiber and water

soluble fiber dissolves in water. insoluble does not.

Glycemic Load (GL)

the amount of carbohydrate in a food multiplied by the amount of glycemic index of that food.