Ch 7 Data Gathering

Methods of data gathering presenting problems

1-Interview 2-Focus groups 3-Survey/questionnaires 4-observations 5-Unobtrusive measure

Presenting problems

Are those initial explanations of the situation that highlight symptoms of which the client is most painfully aware of.

Open-ended questions in interviews

Typically require the participant to provide more detailed answers

(blank) can be source of data that can give consultant insight into the organization without making a direct inquiry or conducting observations. Because these data exist separate from the consulting engagement itself, the data are likely to be less influenced by the presence of the observer or practitioner.

Unobtrusive measures

Observation can be prone to (blank), it may be appropriate to use (blank), whether internal or external to the organization, to observe multiple times and locations.

observer bias, multiple observers

Many managers and consultant a bias for "blank" intervention and shortchange diagnosis

quick

Focus Groups are rarely appropriate for very

sensitive issues

Interventions designed to address presenting problems but that do not address underlying problems are like to produce only a (blank), negligible impact.

short-term

Types of OD interviews

1-Formal 2-Structured 3-Semi-structured

Types of unobtrusive measures

1-Historical data 2-Official documents 3-Databases 4-Online environment 5-Physical environment 6-Language use, including stories and metaphors

"Language use", including stories and metaphors

"one big family" "a sinking ship"

Two Advantages of survey/questionnaires

-Allow a broad range of topics to be addressed -Data can be quantified and compared across groups

Advantage of Focus Group

-Can build on one another's thoughts, stimulating thinking

Stories

-Serves as a teaching function. -"lesson of the product failures of the 1980s" -Can be illuminating for a consultant who wants to understand the organization culture and context.

Consultant must balance several criteria when choosing a data gathering strategy:

1- Investment required - each method has a cost to the organization and the consultant in terms of cost and time for gathering data and data analysis 2-Access - client may not allow the consultant to have access to data or it may not be practical 3-Relevant to the problems - Some methods better suited to particular types of problems 4-Accuracy - some methods are more prone to respondent and consultant bias than others. 5-Flexibility - Some methods allow the consultant to have greater flexibility in terms of following up

Primary advantage of interviews

Ability to understand a person's experience and to follow up on areas of interest -Interviews can allow practitioner to better understand how organizational members interpret a situation or what attitudes and beliefs they have about it.

Advantages of observations

Allow behavior to be seen rather than self-reported

Observation - Advantages

Allow data collection "n the moment" when an event occurs rather than after the event

Observations definition

Allows the consultant to collect data on actual behavior rather than reports on people's behavior -Allows the practitioner to get closer to seeing how these issues play out during the course of an ordinary day and to avoid errors in self-reporting -Collects data on what is happening in the present

Physical environment

An organization (blank) can say a great deal about its culture.

Historical data

Archives consist of both public and nonpublic records

Closed-ended questions in interviews

Can be answered with a word or short phase

2 Disadvantage of Observations

Can be expensive

Another of adv of observations

Can be initiated with little preparation

4 Unobtrusive measures - advantage

Can be less intrusive

3 Unobtrusive measures - disadvantage

Can be more difficult to access

2 Unobtrusive measures - Disadvantage

Can be more subtle to interpret

Unstructured observations

Can be simple as moving from location to location, watching and listening to what people are doing. -The observer can simply make notes about what is being seen.

1 Observations - Disadvantage

Can be time-intensive

1 Unobtrusive measures - Disadvantage

Can be time-intensive

Last advantage of observations

Can build relationships with organization members

Interviews - adv

Can follow up on important issues and explore situation in depth

Interviews

Can generate a tremendous amount of data, with organizational members sharing stories, examples, and personal beliefs, including issues relevant to the issue of the practitioner is investigating and those tangential to it

3 Unobtrusive measures - advantage

Can substantiate or contradict data gathered elsewhere (triangulation)

Disadvantage of focus group

Confidential issues may not be discussed with peers -Few members may dominate the group

Interview - adv

Consultants can capture examples and quotes effectively

Surveys/questionnaires

Consultants can solicit input from a larger number of organizational members at once -typically paper or Internet-based methods to allow for a large number of participants

Survey - disadv

Data analysis can be intensive

1 Unobtrusive measures - Advantages

Data exist separate from individual interpretation or motivation

Survey/questionnaires - adv

Data from many people can be gathered at once -Can take short amount of time -Can repeat to show the difference over time

Databases

Database of customer, financial, and employee records -How many people were hired last year before or where most customers live.

Formal and structured interviews

Each interview asked the exact same set of questions without straying form the list of questions

Avoiding (blank) can be a challenge as part of focus group because some participants may be reluctant to offer a different view, especially if members have a close relationship outside of the focus group.

Groupthink

Observations are likely to alter the circumstances and potentially change the behavior of those being observed.

Hawthorne Effect

2 Unobtrusive measures - advantage

High validity

Information is anonymous

If it can be shared outside the interview but separated from the source (e.g., the interviewee's name)

Information is confidential

If no one other than the consultant will know what was said in the interview

Simple fix

Interventions that fix or address presenting problems but that do not address underlying problems. -Easier to address -Often involve process issues or other task-oriented changes that avoid personal change or interpersonal conflict

Semi-structured interviews

Interview guide containing a general list of open-ended questions addressing the major topics of the interview -Probes by asking follow-up questions where appropriate -Can explore other areas that were not predicted in the interview guide

One of the challenges of data collecting

It takes time

Interviewing

Requires the greatest interpersonal skill of OD practitioners

Most survey use a combination of fixed response questions using this type of scale and questions?

Likert scale and are open ended and short answer questions

4 observations - disadvantage

May be difficult to observe multiple instances of behavior that occurs sporadically

Interviews - advantages 1

May prompt interviewees to be more forthright in a personal environment

Survey - another disadv

May require statistical knowledge beyond the capabilities of the consultant -Difficult to follow up in depth on a single issue -Response rates may be low or may bias the results -Respondent may give socially desirable answers

Interview - advantage

May reveal new issues

Focus Group - advantages

May save time compared to other types of data gathering methods -Access to many people at once; more efficient at getting information

(blank) methods and (blank) the same issue from different perspectives can solidify an interpretation as well and make it more persuasive in the client's eyes.

Mixing, triangulating -In almost all instances, using more than one data collection method is necessary to ensure valid conclusions about the trends, factors, and causes of organizational, process, team, and individual performances.

Interview - adv

More personal than surveys or focus groups

(blank) can heighten participants' anxiety about being observed and can give away the purpose of the observation if it has not been disclosed in detail.

Note-taking

(blank) usually bring the practitioner closer to the situation or problem being experienced than do interview or focus groups.

Observations

3 observations - disadvantage

Observer may be biased to see an event based on how others have explained it

5 observations - disadvantage

Observer may intimidate or affect the group of individual being observed

Official documents

Often used for financial, legal, or human resources purpose, such as job descriptions, goals and objectives, personnel files, or meeting minutes.

Interviews definition

One-on-one meetings during which practitioners speak directly with individual organizational members.

Focus Group - Disadvantage

Potential for groupthink or for people to go along with one point of view to avoid conflict

Interview - disadv

Potentially expensive -Rapport must be established -Interview must trust interviewer -Give only the interviewee's perspective -Interviewers may unwittingly encourage certain response bias -Analysis can be time-consuming

4 Unobtrusive measures - disadvantage

Potentially poor quality

Survey design you need to have both of these background

Qualitative and statistical analysis

Interview - disadvantage

Time and data intensive

Underlying problems

Root problems or core; fundamental issues that are producing the symptoms.

Formal Structured observations

Sampling different times and locations to get representative observations

Online environment

Social media websites, wikis, online bulletin boards, and review websites can illustrate past, current, and prospective employee and customer attitudes about the organization.

In data gather, despite various warnings, unfortunately, (blank) often trumps accurate data and careful diagnosis

Speed

Observations -

The OD practitioner can gain a better understanding of the actual work that people are doing -Practitioner will have a greater understanding of the process, build credibility and relationships with organizational members and richer understanding of impact of any changes on the job

Unobstrusive measures definition

These data are generally readily available because they are produced during the ordinary course of organizational activity. -They can be gathered inconspicious manner without changing the data themselves. -Data usually already exist, and gathering the data does not usually change what is being studied.

Focus Group

Usually a small number of organizational members are facilitated by a consultant who poses questions and then allows for group discussion -Allows the consultant to explore experiences and situations in depth and to follow up on specific areas of interest -They are not observations of group behavior in the group's ordinary work activities

Surveys

address a broad number of subject and explore a wide range of issues, as opposed to a deep investigation of one or two issues

Generally the interviewers can promise that the information from the interviews will remain

anonymous but not confidential

To compensate for the disadvantages of one approach, it may be a good idea to balance it with another, (blank) different methods to yield the most detailed data.

combining

Used alone surveys are best used as

exploratory mechanisms, and they are typically inappropriate for sensitive subjects

Interviews - The practitioner is interested ....

in the individual stories and perspectives of organizational members and in a personal setting can explore their history experiences, beliefs, and attitudes in depth.

Observation is still usually an (blank) activity that interferes in some way with the ordinary course of organizational life.

intrusive

In an attempt to quickly solve the problem that may have existed for quite some time, both the managers and consultants are tempted to take a "blank" through data gathering process, assuming that the information available is sufficient.

shortcut

The benefits to (blank) is you can collect data from a large group of participants at one time

surveys/questionnaires

Observations can be (blank) or (blank) structured.

unstructured, formal

Unobtrusive measures can be useful source of additional data to help the consultant interpret the problem the client describes and organizational culture. They can (blank) or (bank) information gained from other sources. They an be a rapid way of collecting data with less intrusion than other methods.

validate, contradict

Observations can be a good choice when the practitioner would like to (blank) a situation personally.

witness