Ch. 8 The Expansion of Europe, 950-1100

How did the reform movement in the eleventh century, influenced by the monasteries aligned with Cluny, advocate for significant changes in the structure of the Church?

By the eleventh century, the movement toward reform and spiritual renewal in the monasteries of Europe began to embrace the sees of bishops. The monasteries under the sway of Cluny began to lobby for even larger reforms, amounting to a fundamental dismantling of customs that reached back to the organization of the Church under Constantine, seven centuries earlier. They centered their attacks on simony, (a term describing any use of ecclesiastical office for personal gain, including the purchase or sale of a bishopric or a priests's living i.e., house, goods, and annual salary). In other words, the reform movement targeted the very structure of the Church as a network of independent lordships held by powerful men in trust for their families.

How did the Saxon kings build their power during this period, and what were the key factors in their success?

just as the Carolingians had built their power on the conquest of Saxony in the eighth century, the Saxon kings now built theirs on the conquests of Slavic lands to the east. They also nurtured their image as guardians of Christendom

Who developed many of the tools that facilitated the medieval agricultural revolution?

monks (Monasteries played a significant role in the development of new agricultural techniques, as they were often centers of learning and experimentation. Monks developed new methods of crop rotation, irrigation, and land management, and they also introduced new crops and livestock breeds)

Vikings eventually settled in numerous places, establishing a number of different kingdoms. Which common tactics did they use to promote their own success?

strategic marriages to form alliances skilled navigation of river and sea routes

Medieval Warm Period

-Changes in climate created conditions that enabled populations to grow {The shift in climate created new opportunities for farmers. When farmers chose to shift their practices in response, they were able to increase harvests and support more people} -Changes in climate enabled farmers in parts of Europe to raise new crops {Longer, warmer growing seasons enabled farmers to grow crops that had previously only been grown at lower altitudes or lower latitudes} -Average global temperatures increased at about the same increment as human-caused warming today {Between 950 and 1250 C.E., climatologists estimate that average global temperatures were about 1°C or 2°C higher than in the periods before and after the Medieval Warm Period}

Which events contributed to the political independence of Cluniac monasteries in Italy and Frankish territories?

-Cluny used its independent financial power to sponsor other monasteries. -Cluny's wealthy benefactor, the Duke of Aquitaine, gave up any claim to Cluny's property. -Cluny forged a direct relationship with the papacy

Almost two centuries after his reign, which elements of Charlemagne's governance survived in the lands of his former kingdom?

-Descendants of Charlemagne's counts presided over public courts of law in Catalonia. -Local lords in Anjou and Flanders minted and regulated coinage.

In what ways did King Otto I emulate Charlemagne?

-Imperial coronation: Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the Romans in 800 AD, and Otto I similarly sought to be recognized as emperor of the Romans by the pope. In 962 AD, Otto I was crowned emperor by Pope John XII, thereby establishing the Holy Roman Empire. -Expansion of territory: Charlemagne had expanded his kingdom through military conquests, and Otto I similarly sought to expand the German kingdom. He waged wars against neighboring tribes, including the Slavs and Magyars, and gained control of territories that would later become parts of modern-day Germany. -Promotion of Christianity: Charlemagne had been a devout Christian and had played a key role in spreading Christianity throughout Europe. Otto I likewise saw himself as a defender of the faith and worked to strengthen the position of the Church in Germany. He supported the establishment of new bishoprics and monasteries and was a strong advocate for the Christianization of the Slavs. -Patronage of arts and education: Charlemagne was a patron of the arts and education and had established a palace school at Aachen. Otto I likewise saw himself as a patron of the arts and education and founded the Quedlinburg Abbey, which became a center of learning and culture. -Centralized government: Charlemagne had centralized the government of his empire, and Otto I similarly sought to create a strong centralized government in Germany. He established a system of royal officials who were responsible for administering the kingdom and who owed their loyalty to the king.

What does the example of the Flemish town of Arras demonstrate?

-Landlords gave urban dwellers political independence in exchange for paying taxes -Urban communities could counterbalance the power of landed elites -Monasteries acted as landlords

Which tactics characterized Norse leadership in the Viking Age?

-Personal bravery: Viking leaders were expected to lead their warriors into battle, demonstrating personal bravery and fighting prowess. -Strategic planning: Viking leaders were skilled strategists who planned their raids and conquests carefully, often using surprise attacks and hit-and-run tactics. -Loyalty: Viking leaders inspired loyalty in their followers by treating them fairly and sharing the spoils of war. -Diplomacy: Viking leaders were also skilled diplomats who knew how to negotiate with other leaders, form alliances, and settle disputes peacefully. -Reputation: Viking leaders earned a reputation for ruthlessness and ferocity in battle, which helped them intimidate their enemies and win victories. -Sagas: Viking leaders also used sagas, or stories of heroic deeds, to inspire their followers and to establish their own reputation as great leaders.

What reforms did monasteries call for within the Church?

-Simony: Monasteries called for an end to the practice of simony, which involved buying or selling church offices or positions. This practice was seen as corrupt and led to the appointment of unqualified or unworthy individuals to positions of power within the Church. -Celibacy: Monasteries emphasized the importance of celibacy for priests and bishops, arguing that sexual immorality was a major problem within the Church. They believed that priests and bishops should devote themselves fully to their religious duties and avoid the distractions of family life. -Cluniac reforms: The Cluniac reforms, which were spearheaded by the Benedictine abbey of Cluny in France, called for stricter adherence to monastic rules and greater independence from secular authorities. This reform movement emphasized the importance of spiritual purity and devotion to religious life. -Papal authority: Monasteries called for a stronger role for the pope in governing the Church, arguing that the papacy should have greater authority over bishops and other church officials. They believed that the pope could help to restore order and discipline within the Church.

How did the Byzantine Empire address the Rus' threat?

-The Byzantine government cooperated with the Rus' in military ventures. -Byzantine royalty entered into strategic marriages with Rus' leaders.

How did the Fourth Crusade differ from the first three Crusades?

-The target: While the first three Crusades were launched to recapture the Holy Land from Muslim control, the Fourth Crusade was originally intended to target Egypt, which was seen as a strategic location for controlling the eastern Mediterranean. -The diversion: However, due to a complex series of events and political maneuvering, the Fourth Crusade never reached Egypt. Instead, the Crusaders were diverted to Constantinople, where they attacked and sacked the city in 1204, causing significant damage to the Byzantine Empire. -The participants: The Fourth Crusade was primarily composed of French and Venetian knights, while the first three Crusades had involved a broader range of European powers. -The aftermath: The Fourth Crusade had significant political and cultural repercussions, including the weakening of the Byzantine Empire and the division of the Christian world into Eastern and Western branches.

How did bankers and moneychangers help to promote trade across Europe?

-They connected merchants in northern Europe to major sites of commerce, like Córdoba, Baghdad, and Constantinople {Jewish bankers who were part of a broader Mediterranean Jewish community were able to forge these connections. Note that plenty of Christians engaged in banking, despite religious rules against it} -They provided an alternative to traveling with cash {This significantly reduced the risk involved in trade}

Which intellectual developments did medieval Europe acquire from the Islamic world?

-an authoritative medical textbook, used by medical students until the 1600s {The Canon of Medicine, written by Avicenna (Ibn Sina) included ideas about disease contagion} -Aristotle's writings and ideas about how to reconcile his philosophy with monotheistic theologies {Aristotelian thought was more thoroughly preserved in the Islamic world than in Byzantium, where teaching of Aristotelian logic was banned}

How did European scholars gain access to new Hellenistic, Islamic, and other Asian knowledge?

1. Abbasid scholars at the House of Wisdom collected Hellenistic and Eastern works, translated them, and expanded upon this knowledge 2. The Crusades increased western European contact with the eastern Islamic World 3. Western European scholars, supported by monasteries, had new opportunities to travel East to study 4. European Arabist scholars translated Arabic-language texts into Latin, making them accessible to scholars across Europe.

Trace the trajectory of the First Crusade by placing the following events into chronological order

1. Convinced heavily armed European knights could defeat Seljuk fighters, the Byzantine emperor asked for military help from Pope Urban II 2. Pope Urban II called on European knights to fight against "pagans," saying fighters could win salvation in addition to wealth 3. Heeding the call of the pope, diverse Europeans—rich and poor, men and women—set out for the Holy Land 4. Inspired by the rhetoric of vengeance, Crusaders killed hundreds of European Jews along the way to Constantinople and massacred more people—Jews, Muslims, and Christians—in their 1099 conquest of Jerusalem.

the events of the Investiture Conflict in chronological order

1. Pope Leo IX, a former monk, enforced new rules against simony and clerical marriage by traveling across Europe and punishing disobedient officials 2. Pope Nicholas II established the College of Cardinals to conduct papal elections, taking that power out of the hands of European kings 3. When King Henry IV invested a new archbishop of Milan, Pope Gregory VII excommunicated him and invited his subjects to rebel against him 4. After he performed elaborate rites of penance before Gregory, King Henry IV reclaimed his political position and forced the pope out of power.

How did the selection of Hildebrand as Pope Gregory VII by the College of Cardinals signify a crucial moment in the papal reform movement, and how did the initial dynamics between Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV exemplify the emperor's reliance on papal support to restore his authority in Germany?

A few years after Henry IV began to rule in his own right, the new College of Cardinals selected as pope a zealous reformer called Hildebrand, a Cluniac monk of Tuscan origins who had been a protégé of Leo IX. He took the name Gregory VII and initially, pope and emperor treated one another with deference. Henry IV's position in Germany had been weakened by his wars with the Saxon nobility, and he needed papal backing to restore his authority

What factors made manors an attractive option for local lords and monasteries? How did the productivity of manors allow lords to control and exploit peasants more effectively?

A manor could be created or co-opted by a local lord or a monastery acting as a lord. Manors were attractive because their greater productivity meant that lords could take a larger share of the peasants' surplus ---It was easier to control and exploit peasants who lived together in villages and who were bound to one another by ties of kinship and dependence. Over time, some lords were therefore able to reduce formerly free peasants to the status of serfs who could not leave the land without permission. Like slaves, serfs inherited their servile status; but unlike slaves, they were not supposed to be sold apart from the lands they worked.

What were the key public powers that William and his successors enjoyed as kings of England and how did these powers differ from those that William had as Duke of Normandy? How did William's kingship represent a fusion of Carolingian-style traditions of public power with the new feudal relationships that had developed in the 10th and 11th centuries?

As king of England, therefore, William was able to exercise a variety of public powers that he could not have enjoyed in Normandy. For in England, unlike on the Continent, only the king could coin money and only the king's money was allowed to circulate. As kings of England, William and his successors also inherited the right to collect a national land tax, the right to supervise justice in royal courts, and the right to raise an army. They also retained the Anglo-Saxon officers of local government, known as sheriffs, to help them administer and enforce their rights. William was thereby able to insist that all the people of England owed ultimate loyalty to the king, even if they did not hold a scrap of land directly from him. William's kingship thus represented a powerful fusion of Carolingian-style traditions of public power with the new feudal relationships that had grown up in the tenth and eleventh centuries. It was a feudal monarchy.

What were charters of liberty? How did the granting of charters of liberty to Catalonian and Flemish towns and the formation of communes, like the one in Arras, contribute to the economic and political development of these regions in the 12th century?

Charters of liberty were typically issued by monarchs or local rulers and granted a variety of privileges to the inhabitants of the town or city, such as the right to govern themselves, the right to hold markets, the right to collect taxes, and the right to defend themselves against external threats; Many Catalonian and Flemish towns accordingly received charters of liberty from the counts of these regions. In 1127, the people of Arras, on the Franco-Flemish border, declared that they were no longer the serfs of the local monastery that had nurtured the growth of their town in the first place. They banded together to form a commune, swearing to maintain solidarity with one another and setting up their own form of representative government. The monastery was forced to free them, and then free to tax them. The arrangement was mutually beneficial: by the end of the century, Arras was the wealthiest and most densely populated town in northern Europe.

How did the Christian Church view the practice of usury, and what was the practical reality of lending money and making profits in medieval towns?

Christian theologians cited various passages from the Old and New Testaments which seemed to condemn it, but in practice, the western Church turned a blind eye to such practices. Indeed, many prominent churchmen, including bishops, made fortunes lending money, as did many laymen, especially in towns like Arras and Florence.

Which institution was most closely associated with the monastic reform movement of the tenth century?

Cluny {a reform movement within the Benedictine Order that emerged in the 10th century. The Cluniacs emphasized a stricter interpretation of the Benedictine Rule, and sought to restore the discipline and rigor of the original monastic ideal. Cluniac monasteries were renowned for their austere and ascetic practices, and they also played important roles as centers of learning and culture}

Additionally, how did the concept of vengeance play a role in motivating the crusaders, including assaults against Jewish communities in Europe, and what were the consequences of these actions for the Jewish population during the First Crusade?

Crusade preaching also emphasized the vengeance that Christ's soldiers should exact on his enemies in the East. But to some crusaders, it seemed absurd to wait until they arrived in Jerusalem to undertake this aspect of their mission. Muslims might hold Jesus's property at Jerusalem, but Christian theology held Jews responsible for the death of Jesus himself. Assaults against Jewish communities therefore began in the spring of 1096 and quickly spread eastward with the crusaders. Hundreds of Jews were killed in the German towns of Mainz, Worms, Speyer, and Cologne, and hundreds more were forcibly baptized as the price for escaping death at the hands of crusading knights. Many individual churchmen attempted to prevent these attacks, among them the bishops in whose dioceses Jews lived. But the Church's own negative propaganda thwarted these efforts, and pogroms against Europe's Jews would remain a regular and predictable feature of Christian crusading.

How was Europe affected by VIKING raids and settlements?

During the Viking Age, numerous coastal communities in Europe experienced violent raids, leading to destruction and loss of life. The Vikings established settlements in regions like England, Scotland, Ireland, and France, influencing local culture, language, art, and religion through integration. These attacks prompted the development of defensive technologies and naval strategies among affected communities, while the Vikings' own shipbuilding and navigation skills also contributed to advancements in maritime technology across Europe.

How were MONEY AND CREDIT essential to medieval commerce?

During the medieval period, the absence of standardized currency led to barter as a common means of exchange, but as trade and commerce expanded, the necessity for a universal medium of exchange became evident. Coins made of precious metals like gold and silver emerged as a solution, valued for their intrinsic worth and widely accepted in trade. Money also facilitated credit, enabling merchants to borrow funds for their operations from various sources, including wealthy individuals, money lenders, and religious institutions, albeit often at high interest rates. This credit availability allowed merchants to invest and expand their businesses. Furthermore, money and credit played a pivotal role in the development of banking in medieval Europe, with banking institutions offering financial services like lending, currency exchange, and fund transfers, contributing significantly to the growth of medieval commerce.

Why did EMPEROR ALEXIUS ask POPE URBAN II for assistance?

Emperor Alexius I Comnenus, the ruler of the Byzantine Empire, asked Pope Urban II for assistance in the late 11th century because his empire was under threat from the Seljuk Turks, a powerful Muslim dynasty that had been expanding its territory and influence in the Middle East and Asia Minor. -The Seljuks had been steadily encroaching on Byzantine territory, taking over cities and towns and threatening Constantinople itself -Alexius was facing a serious military and political crisis, and he saw the Pope as a potential ally who could provide him with military aid and reinforcements. -Alexius hoped that the Pope would rally Christian forces from across Europe to come to his aid and fight against the Seljuks -This appeal eventually led to the launch of the First Crusade, which was called by Pope Urban II in 1095 and resulted in the recapture of Jerusalem from Muslim control in 1099

What did the ideologies of crusade and jihad impact?

For Muslims, the Christian occupation of Jerusalem was a religious matter entirely, not a political or economic loss, and it was for pious reasons that they planned its recovery. By 1144, most of the crusader principalities in Syria had been recaptured. When Christian warriors came east in the Second Crusade to recoup the losses, they suffered crushing defeats ---Not long afterward, Syria and Egypt were united under the great Muslim leader Salah ad-Din (Saladin), who decisively recaptured Jerusalem in 1187. Further Crusades were launched in response, none of them successful and all of them putting renewed pressure on Byzantium. The worst blow came in 1204, when Venetian ships contracted to transport a crusader army to the Holy Land were diverted to Constantinople, instead, The result was an enormous commercial gain for Venice and the effective destruction of the Byzantine Empire, which for the next sixty years was divided into Latin-ruled and Greek-ruled provinces.

What significant powers and prerogatives did Pope Gregory VII assert during his tenure? How did his claims to authority impact the relationship between the papacy and secular rulers during his time?

Gregory VII's equation of excommunication with deposition had given the pope a powerful new weapon to use against wayward rulers. Indeed, according to a series of pronouncements issued in his name, Gregory insisted that the pope has the power to judge all men but cannot himself be judged by any earthly authority. ---He has the power to free any man from his obligations to his lord because every Christian owes ultimate loyalty to the pope, the arbiter of eternal life or death

How did Pope Gregory VII escalate the papal reform movement by asserting that adherence to its principles was not just a matter of policy but a religious dogma necessary for salvation? What was Gregory's response to Henry IV's refusal to accept these principles demonstrate?

Gregory took the reform movement to a new level, insisting that adherance to these principles was not just a matter of policy but a matter of religious dogma, defined as "a truth necessary for salvation. When Henry IV refused to accept this and proceeded to invest the new archbishop of Milan, Gregory reminded him that, as the succesor of Saint Peter and the representative of Christ on earth, he had the power to save or damn all souls. To drive the point home, Gregory excommunicated a number of Henry's advisors, including several of the bishops who had participated in the investiture at Milan. Henry there upon renounced his obedience to Gregory, calling on him to resign. ---Gregory responded by excommunicating Henry, along with a large number of his supporters. In itself, the excommunication of a king was not terribly unusual. Gregory, however, went much further by equating excommunication with deposition, declaring that since Henry was no longer a faithful son of the Church, he was no longer the king of Germany and his subjects had a sacred duty to rebel against him

What significant challenge did King Otto I face in maintaining his power?

He could only control regions in close physical proximity to his court

What were the different purposes to which mills were adapted during the Middle Ages, and why were they so important for manufacturing during that time period?

Mills were also adapted to a variety of purposes beyond the grinding of grain: they drove saws for lumber, processed cloth, pressed olive oil, provided power for iron forge, and crushed pulp for manufacturing paper. The importance of mills would remain the world's only source of mechanical power for manufacturing until the invention of the steam engine

What were the long-term implications of the conflict over investiture between Gregory VII and Henry IV, and how was this conflict ultimately resolved at the Concordat of Worms?

Henry used his restored powers to crush his Saxon opponents and eventually to drive Gregory himself from Rome. In 1085, the aged pope died in exile in southern Italy. By then, however, he had established the principles on which papal governance would be based for the remainder of the Middle Age ---In 1122, the conflict over investiture was ultimately resolved through compromise at the Concordat of Worms (VOHRMS) in Germany. Its terms declared that the emperor was forbidden to invest prelates with the religious symbols of their office but was allowed to invest them with the symbols of their rights as temporal rulers, in his capacity as their overlord. In practice, then, the rulers of Europe retained a great deal of influence over ecclesiastical appointments. But they also had to acknowledge that bishops were now part of a clerical hierarchy headed by the pope, loyal to the Church in Rome and not to the ruler of the region in which they lived.

How did Pope Urban II and other preachers use promises of blessings and spiritual rewards, such as freedom from Church-imposed penances and otherworldly punishments, to encourage participation in the Crusade?

If one could receive special blessings by traveling to Compostela, Conques, or Bari, how much more blessed would one be if one fought through to the Holy Land! Urban II made this point explicit at Clermont, promising that crusaders would be freed from all penances imposed by the Church. Some zealous preachers went even further, promising that crusaders would be entirely freed from otherworldly punishments for all sins committed up to that point in their lives, and that the souls of those who died on crusade would go straight to Heaven.

How did Pope Leo IX's reforming agenda reflect a reimagining of the Church as a feudal monarchy?

Implicit in Leo's reforming efforts was a new vision of the Church as a type of feudal monarchy, with the pope at the apex of a spiritual pyramid, an ideal difficult for any secular ruler to realize and one that would severely limit the power of other ecclesiastical officeholders.

How did the assumption of direct rule by Henry IV in 1073 impact the German princes and their power struggle with the Church, particularly in light of Pope Gregory VII's position on laymen's influence within the Church?

In 1056, when the six-year-old Henry IV (1050-1106) succeeded his father as king and emperor, the German princes of various regions—led by disenfranchised Saxon nobility—tried to gain control of the royal government at the expense of Henry's regents. When Henry began to rule in his own right, in 1073, these hostilities escalated into a civil war. At the same time, the newly elected pope, Gregory VII (r. 1073-85), began to insist that no laymen—not even royal ones—should have any influence within the Church

What were the main strategies used by Duke William of Normandy to establish his rule over England after the Battle of Hastings, and how did he manage to subjugate the English chieftains who held power?

In 1066, Duke William of Normandy claimed that he was the rightful successor of the English king, Edward, who had just died. But the English elected a new king, Harold, ignoring William's claim. So William crossed the English Channel to take the kingdom by force, defeating Harold at the Battle of Hastings ---After the battle, William had to subjugate all of the other English chieftains who held power, many of whom also aspired to be king. He accomplished this, first, by asserting that he was king by imperial conquest as well as by succession, and that all the land of England thereby belonged to him. Then William rewarded his Norman followers with fiefs: extensive grants of land taken from their English holders, which the Norman lords were allowed to exploit and subdue; in return, William received their loyalty and a share of their revenues.

What was the significance of King Otto I's victory over the Magyars in 955? How did his coronation as emperor in 962 contribute to his claims to imperial autonomy, and what role did his deposition of Pope John XII play in this? In what ways did Otto advertise his inheritance of Charlemagne's power?

In 955, King Otto I of Saxony defeated the pagan Magyars while carrying a sacred lance that had belonged to Charlemagne. This victory established Otto as a dominant power and as Charlemagne's worthy successor; In 962, accordingly, he went to Rome to be crowned emperor by Pope John XII, who hoped Otto would help him defeat his enemies. But Otto turned the tables on the pope, deposing him for his scandalous lifestyle and selecting a new pope to replace him. Otto thereby laid the foundation for his successors' claims to imperial autonomy. ---He also advertised his inheritance of Charlemagne's power through his patronage of arts and learning. Under Otto's influence, the Saxon court became a refuge for men and women of talent

How did the counts of Catalonia and Aquitaine maintain their authority based on the Carolingian foundation, and what were some of the specific examples of their power and influence? In contrast, what were the factors that led to the collapse of Carolingian rule in Charlemagne's own Frankish kingdom?

In Catalonia, counts descended from Carolingian appointees continued to administer justice in public courts of law throughout the tenth century and to draw revenues from tolls and trade. The city of Barcelona grew rapidly as both a long-distance and a regional market under the protection of these counts. In Aquitaine also, the counts of Poitiers and Toulouse continued to rest their authority on Carolingian foundation; In Charlemagne's own Frankish kingdom, however, Carolingian rule collapsed under the combined weight of Viking raids, economic disintegration, and the growing power of local lords

How did the appointment of Pope Leo IX by Emperor Henry III in 1046 mark a significant turning point in the reform of the papacy?

In Rome, the papacy remained resolutely unreformed until 1046, when the German emperor Henry III deposed three rival Roman nobles who claimed to be pope and appointed in their place his own relative, a monk who adopted the name Leo IX (r. 1049-54). Leo and his supporters took control of the papal court and began to promulgate decrees against simony and clerical marriage. They then took steps to enforce these decrees by traveling throughout the Continent, disciplining and removing from office clerics deemed guilty of simony or obstinently determined not to "put away" their wives—whom the reformers insisted on calling "concubines" as a way of discrediting these respectable relationships

What was the role of knights in medieval society and how did men from different backgrounds become knights?

In addition to castle-holding, both the older aristocracy and self-made lords needed the help of warriors to enforce their claims to power. Essentially, each lord maintained a private army of men heavily equipped with the new weaponry and armor that the widespread availability of iron—and new techniques for smelting it—made possible. These men fought on horseback, and were therefore called "horsemen": in French, chevaliers, and in English, knights. Knighthood was a career that embraced men of widely varying status. Some eleventh-century knights were the younger sons of lords who sought to increase their chances of winning wealth by attaching themselves to the households of greater lords. Others were youths recruited from the peasantry, mounted and armed. All that bound them together was their function, which was the violent prosecution of their lord's interests.

What was the role of monasteries and towns in the development of civilization in northwestern Europe and how did Charlemagne and King Alfred contribute to the establishment of towns in their respective regions?

In most areas, monasteries replaced cities as the nuclei of civilization in northwestern Europe. Under Charlemagne and his imitators, towns came to be planted by royal initiative, as centers for markets and administration. In Anglo-Saxon England, too, King Alfred and his successors established new towns in strategic locations while at the same time reviving older Roman cities. They also issued a reliable and well-regulated currency that encouraged commerce.

What were the reasons behind the growth of towns in southwestern Europe, particularly in Italy, and how did this lead to significant changes?

In southwestern Europe, towns prospered from their status as ports or their location along the overland routes connecting the Mediterranean with the Atlantic. In Italy, which had been decimated by five centuries of warfare and invasion, the growth of towns gave rise to especially dramatic changes.

How did the Byzantine Empire strategically respond to the emerging threats from Muslim fleets, migrating Slavs, and Viking invaders, and how did their efforts to convert the Balkan Slavs to Orthodox Christianity contribute to their alliances and cultural influence in the region?

In the mid-ninth century, a Muslim fleet captured the Byzantine islands of Sicily and Crete. The migration of pagan Slavs into the Balkans was rapidly undermining Byzantine control of that region and a formidable enemy had emerged in the north, as the Vikings known as the Rus' established themselves along the river systems that fed into the Black and Caspian Seas. In 860, while the Byzantine emperor and his army were busy on the eastern frontier, a fleet of Russian Vikings sailed into the Black Sea and sacked the capital. A century later, Byzantium had succeeded in making these newer enemies their allies. Greek-speaking missionaries began the process by converting the Balkan Slavs to Orthodox Christianity, devising for them a written language known as Old Church Slavonic and creating the Cyrillic alphabet still used today in Bulgaria, Serbia, and Russia

Explain the three-field crop-rotation system, and how it contributed to sustainable agriculture in northern Europe during the Middle Ages

In the more fertile soils of northern Europe, farmers slowly discovered that a three-field crop-rotation system could produce a sustainable increase in overall production. The division of the land would be divided by into thirds. One-third of the land would lie fallow or be used as pasture, so that manure would fertilize the soil. Another would be planted with winter wheat or rye, sown in the fall and harvested in the early summer. The last third would be planted in the spring with another crop to be harvested in the fall. These fields were then rotated over a three-year cycle. This three-field crop-rotation system increased the amount of land under cultivation from 50 to 67 percent, while the two separate growing seasons provided some insurance against loss due to natural disasters or inclement weather. The system also produced higher yields per acre, particularly if legumes or fodder crops like oats were a regular part of the crop-rotation pattern and replaced the nitrogen that wheat and rye leach out of the soil.

How did the conflict between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII over the appointment of bishops and abbots escalate to the point where Henry had to perform the ritual of penance at the castle of Canossa?

King Henry resisted any initiative that would prohibit him from selecting his own bishops and abbots— the key players in the administration of his realm. So Pope Gregory allied himself with the rebellious Saxon nobility and together they moved to depose Henry. In order to save his crown, Henry was therefore forced to acknowledge the pope's superiority by begging forgiveness. Crossing the Alps into Italy in 1077, in the depths of winter, he found Gregory installed at the castle of Canossa under the protection of one of Europe's most powerful rulers, Matilda of Tuscany. Encouraged by Matilda, who interceded on his behalf, Henry performed an elaborate ritual of penance, standing for three successive days outside the gates of the castle, barefoot, stripped of his imperial trappings, and clad in the sackcloth of a supplicant.

What were some of the advancements made by later Islamic physicians?

Later Islamic physicians would learn the value of cauterization and of styptic agents, diagnose cancer of the stomach, prescribe antidotes in cases of poisoning, and make notable progress in treating eye diseases. They recognized the infectious character of bubonic plague, pointing out that it could be transmitted by clothing. ---Muslim physicians were also pioneers in organizing hospitals and licensing medical practitioners. At least thirty-four great hospitals were located in the principal cities of Persia, Syria, and Egypt, each with separate wards for particular illnesses, a dispenary for giving out medicine, and a library. Chief physicians and surgeons lectured to students and graduates, examined them, and issued licenses to practice medicine. Even the owners of leeches (used for bloodletting, a standard medical practice of the day) had to submit their medicinal worms for inspection at regular intervals. ---Thanks to Arabic mathematics, western Europeans could now add, subtract, divide, and multiply quickly and accurately, with or without the help of another Muslim invention, the abacus.

What are the different interpretations of "feudalism" among legal historians and military historians and how do they differ in their understanding of the system of landholding and the granting of land for military service?

Legal historians, meanwhile, speak of "feudalism" as a system of landholding in which lesser men hold land from greater men in return for services of various kinds; but it was not always the greater man who held the most land. Meanwhile, military historians use "feudalism" to refer to a system whereby great lords and kings grant land in order to raise troops

How did the opposition faced by Pope Leo IX and his successors within the Church lead to the reliance on the support of secular rulers and how did the establishment of the College of Cardinals by Pope Nicholas II in 1059 mark a significant development in the governance of the papacy?

Leo and his successors met with considerable opposition within the Church itself, and they could only enforce their claims in regions where they had the support of secular rulers. Among these was the pious emperor Henry III, whose protection insulated papal reformers from the Roman nobility, who would otherwise have deposed or assassinated them. But when Henry III died in 1056, the regents of his child heir Henry IV were neither able nor willing to stand behind the reforming movement. In 1058, the Roman aristocracy seized this opportunity to install one of their own number on the papal throne. By this time, however, the reform movement had gathered momentum; a year later, a new pope had been installed and was determined to counter any interference from either the German or Italian nobility; Pope Nicholas II (r. 1059-61) created a new legislative body, the College of Cardinals (from the Latin for "collection" of "hinges"). Hitherto, local bishops around Rome had served the papacy as advisors and assistants, but now the College became the pivotal force for the creation of papal policy. It also ensured the continuity of the papal office by overseeing the selection of new popes, a role it still plays today.

How did the pursuits of philosophy, medicine, and astrology among Muslim scholars offer different avenues for recognition and success?

Many Muslim philosophers were also distinguished physicians and scientists. The study of philosophy could bring a man renown (or censure) but few tangible rewards, whereas successful physicians and astrologers might rise to positions of wealth and power. Islamic accomplishments in medicine were equally remarkable. Avicenna discovered the contagious nature of tuberculosis, described pleurisy and several varieties of nervous ailments and noted that diseases could spread through contaminated water and soil

What were the factors that allowed merchants to open up a direct route by sea between Italy and the Atlantic ports of northern Europe?

Merchants would succeed in opening up a direct route by sea between Italy and the Atlantic ports of northern Europe, after which it became practical to import raw wool directly from England to towns like Florence, which began producing its cloth

What were the purposes and significance of relics in medieval monasteries?

Monasteries were often the repositories of cherished objects associated with saints, such as fragments of bone or pieces of cloth cut from the garments of some holy person. These souvenirs were believed to possess special protective and curative powers. Hence, a relic was usually buried beneath the altar of a monastery's church during the ceremony of its consecration, in order to render the church building sacrosanct. Relics were also collected and displayed in elaborate reliquaries made of precious metals and studded with jewels, casings that reflected and augmented the value of the holy objects contained within them.

How did Jewish bankers play a crucial role in extending credit and making investments in medieval Europe, and what were the reasons for their virtual monopoly on these activities?

Most of the sophisticated financial mechanisms for extending credit and making investments had long been in place throughout the Islamic world and Byzantium, but in western Europe much of this crucial activity was carried forward by Jewish bankers situated within the network of close-knit Jewish communites that connected cities like Constantinople, Baghdad, and Córdoba to the burgeoning cities of the north. In many regions, Jews had a virtual monopoly on these activities, because Christians were technically forbidden to lend money at interest or to make a profit from investments. This practice was called usury (from the Latin word for "interest")

Otto I

Otto I, also known as Otto the Great, was a king of Germany from 936 until his death in 973. He was a member of the Saxon dynasty and the son of Henry the Fowler, the first king of the Germans from the House of Saxony. Otto succeeded his father as king at the age of 24 and went on to become one of the most successful rulers in German history. He expanded his territories through military conquests, established a strong centralized government, and was crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 962 by Pope John XII. Otto is known for his patronage of the arts and education, and for his role in establishing the cathedral schools that laid the foundation for the later university system in Europe. He died in 973 and was succeeded by his son, Otto II.

What challenges did Holy Roman Emperor Otto and his successors face in maintaining control over their realm? How did these challenges lead to a rift between the monarchs and their subjects, and what were the consequences of this alienation, especially during the rule of the Salian dynasty in the eleventh century?

Otto also presided over the establishment of cathedral schools and helped the bishops of his domain turn their own courts into cultural centers. Otto couldn't control either the papacy or the independent towns of northern Italy unless he maintained a permanent presence there. And if he remained in Italy too long, his authority in Saxony broke down. Balancing local realities with imperial ambitions thus presented a dilemma that neither he nor his successors were able to solve ---The result was a gradually increasing rift between local elites and the king in his guise as Holy Roman Emperor. This alienation would accelerate in the eleventh century, when the imperial crown passed to a new dynasty, the Salians, centered not in Saxony but in neighboring Franconia. By the 1070s, when the Salian emperor Henry IV attempted to assert control over Saxony, he touched off a war that was to have momentous repercussions

What happened to the infrastructure of the Latin Church in the ninth century?

Powerful families claimed local churches, monasteries, and church positions as their own propert

How did the challenge of reconciling Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotelian and Neoplatonic thought, with the theological beliefs of Islam and Christianity pose difficulties?

Reconciling Greek philosophy with Islamic theology was more difficult because like Judaism and Christianity, Islam holds that a single omnipotent God created the world as an act of pure will, and that the world will continue to exist only so long as God wills it. This runs counter to the classical views of the world as eternal. Moreover, both Christian and Islamic theology rests on the immortality of the individual human soul, another doctrine flatly in conflict with Aristotelian and Neoplatonic thought.

Why did the organization of labor on MANORS sometimes lead to SERFDOM?

Serfdom could develop when the lord of the manor had enough power to enforce his will upon the peasants, who were often poor and lacked resources to resist. As a result, the lord could use his power to demand more and more labor from the peasants, and to restrict their freedom and mobility, eventually leading to a state of serfdom. Furthermore, serfdom could be reinforced by inheritance laws, which passed the status of serfdom from one generation to the next. If a serf had children, they would also be serfs, and their children after them, thus making it difficult for them to escape the bondage of serfdom.

What was the impact of climate change on agriculture in Europe during the Middle Ages, and how did it affect different regions?

Starting in the eighth or ninth century, average temperatures in Europe gradually rose by about 1° or 2°C (3.6°F)—the same increment that has led to global warming today. The warming climate benefited northern Europe by drying the soil and lengthening the growing season, while hotter summers and diminishing rainfall hurt Mediterranean agriculture in equal measure

What were some of the challenges and dangers associated with living in cities during the Middle Ages?

Streets were often unpaved, houses had gardens for raising vegetables, animals were everywhere (in the early twelfth century, the heir to the throne of France was killed when his horse tripped over a pig running loose in the streets of Paris), sanitary conditions were poor, and the air reeked of excrement, both animal and human (under these conditions, disease could spread rapidly), and fire was another omni-present danger, because wooden and thatched buildings were clustered close together

What was the impact of the Crusades on the balance of power between Byzantium and Western Europe? Why was the impact of the Crusades on the Islamic world considered modest?

The Crusade thereby contributed to the further decline of Byzantine commerce and decisively altered the balance of power between Byzantium and western Europe. For Byzantium, the consequences of the crusading movement were clearly tragic ---On the Islamic world, by contrast, the impact was much more modest. The crusader kingdoms were never more than a sparsely settled cluster of colonies along the coastline of Syria and Palestine. Because the crusaders did not control the Red Sea, the main routes of Islamic commerce with India and the Far East were unaffected by the change in Jerusalem's religious allegiance.

TRACE the political, economic, social, religious, and cultural effects of the crusades

The Crusades had a multifaceted impact on medieval Europe and the Middle East. Politically, they bolstered the power of European monarchs and gave rise to new political entities like the Crusader states in the Middle East. Economically, the Crusades facilitated trade between Europe and the Middle East, fostering the development of economic institutions like banks and credit networks to finance the campaigns. However, they also resulted in significant loss of life, leading to social changes, including the emergence of new social classes like the Crusading nobility and the promotion of cultural forms like chivalry. Religiously, the Crusades contributed to religious intolerance between Christians and Muslims, while simultaneously sparking renewed religious devotion in Europe. Culturally, they influenced art and architecture, contributing to styles such as Gothic architecture and illuminated manuscripts, as well as the dissemination of new cultural ideas and practices, including Arabic numerals and the cultivation of new crops and foods.

Explain the motives behind the crusades

The Crusades, a series of military campaigns during the Middle Ages, were driven by a complex interplay of motivations. Chief among these was a deep-seated religious zeal among Christians in Europe, who viewed it as their sacred duty to regain the Holy Land from Muslim control, motivated by the need to protect and spread the Christian faith, as well as atone for sins. Economic and political factors played a role too, with the Byzantine Empire's interests and the prospects for European knights and nobles to acquire wealth, land, and power in the Holy Land acting as incentives. Cultural and social factors were also influential, driven by desires to assert Christian dominance over other cultures and to showcase valor and bravery in battle. Furthermore, the Crusades presented an opportunity for the Papacy and religious leaders to extend their power and authority within the Church and European society as a whole.

Who were the Capetian kings, and what was the extent of their power and influence in the aftermath of Charlemagne's rule?

The Franks still had a king, but this king was no longer a descendant of Charlemagne. Moreover, his domain had been reduced to the tiny region around Paris: this was the remnant that the local count, Hugh Capet, who had managed to defend against the Vikings in 987, thus earning him the title King of the Franks. Marooned on this Ile de France (literally, "island of France"), the Capetian kings clung to the fiction that they were the heirs of Charlemagne's greatness.

What new technologies drove the AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION of the Middle Ages?

The Medieval Agricultural Revolution brought about a series of transformative innovations in farming during the Middle Ages. These advancements included the adoption of the Three-Field System, which involved dividing farmland into three fields and leaving one fallow to restore soil nutrients, thereby increasing crop yields. The introduction of the Heavy Plow allowed for more efficient plowing, especially in heavy clay soils, and improved water retention in the soil. The use of the Horse Collar harnessed horse power for plowing and transportation, replacing slower and less powerful oxen. Windmills and watermills played a vital role in grinding grain, simplifying food processing and storage. Crop rotation, the practice of alternating different crops each year, helped enhance soil fertility and reduce the risk of crop failure. Furthermore, improved breeding strategies resulted in the development of specific livestock breeds tailored for desired traits like size or milk production, contributing to agricultural efficiency and productivity.

Which territorial rulers imitated CAROLINGIAN models in the wake of these upheavals?

The Ottonians, originally dukes in Saxony, managed to unify various German tribes, establishing a strong monarchy that expanded its influence into Italy and central Europe. They sought to bolster their authority through a network of loyal bishops and abbots, and their imperial ambitions were reflected in their art and architecture, influenced by Carolingian models like Charlemagne's Palace Chapel in Aachen. The Ottonians also played a role in reviving learning and culture, supporting the creation of important literary and artistic works. Other rulers, such as the Capetian dynasty in France and the Anglo-Saxon kings in England, attempted to emulate Carolingian practices and promote cultural revival, but their efforts to establish a powerful monarchy were not as successful as those of the Ottonians, leading to relatively fragmented territories until later consolidation.

Why did the pope use this as a pretext for urging the FIRST CRUSADE?

The Pope's decision to launch the Crusades in the late 11th century was driven by a complex set of motivations. Firstly, he sought to unify the Christian world and enhance the power and influence of the Catholic Church by rallying Christians across Europe for a holy war to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control. This would allow believers to prove their faith and earn salvation, strengthening the Church's authority. Secondly, the Pope aimed to assert his authority over the Eastern Orthodox Church centered in Constantinople by deploying a Western Christian force to the East. Finally, a genuine desire to protect the Byzantine Empire from the Seljuk Turks and safeguard Christian pilgrims on their way to the Holy Land played a crucial role in his decision. These intertwined factors shaped the launching of the Crusades.

What was the impact of the Seljuq dynasty's expansion westward in the latter part of the eleventh century, and what territories did they capture?

The Seljuqs, a powerful dynasty of Sunni Muslims who were building their own empire based in Persia, began to move westward in the latter part of the eleventh century. In 1071, they captured Armenia and moved swiftly into the Byzantine heartland of Anatolia (Turkey), where they destroyed the Byzantine army sent to deflect them. At a blow, the wealthiest and most productive part of the empire fell into Muslim hands—and not those of the Abbasids with whom the Byzantines had contended for centuries. In the same year, the Seljuqs captured Jerusalem, which had been part of a Shi'ite caliphate based in Egypt, ruled by the Fatimids.

What important regional shift occurred between 950 and 1100 CE?

The center of European political, cultural, and economic power shifted northward

How did the ceremony of HOMAGE symbolize the relationship between a VASSAL and his LORD?

The ceremony of homage held a central role in the feudal system, symbolizing the vassal-lord relationship. This public ritual involved the vassal swearing loyalty to the lord, and, in return, the lord would grant the vassal a fief, typically land. Symbolic gestures characterized the ceremony, with the vassal kneeling, placing hands between the lord's hands, and swearing allegiance, symbolizing their submission to the lord's authority. The lord reciprocated with symbolic acts, like offering a piece of earth or a twig as a symbol of the fief and embracing or kissing the vassal, emphasizing the personal bond. Beyond symbolism, the ceremony was legally binding, committing the vassal to provide military and other services, and the lord to offer protection and support, solidifying the hierarchical vassal-lord relationship through land grants and mutual obligations.

What were some factors that contributed to the success of the Crusaders in capturing Antioch and Jerusalem? How did the divisions among the Muslim rulers and the support from Genoa and Pisa play a role in their victories?

The crusaders, furthermore, did not understand the Byzantine emperor's willingness to make alliances with some Muslim rulers (the Shi'ite Fatimids of Egypt and the Abassids of Baghdad) against other Muslim rulers (the Sunni Seljuqs), and they ignorantly concluded that the Byzantines were working to undermine the crusading effort, perhaps even supporting the Muslims against them. In 1098, crusaders captured the old Hellenistic city of Antioch and with it most of the Syrian coast. At the end of 1099, they took Jerusalem, indiscriminately slaughtering its Muslim, Jewish, and Christian inhabitants. Their quick success stemmed mainly from the fact that their Muslim opponents were at that moment divided amongst themselves. The Fatimids had in fact recaptured Jerusalem just months before the crusaders arrived, and the defeated Seljuqs were at war with one other. But western military tactics, in particular the dominance of heavily armored knights, also played an important role in the crusaders' success. Equally critical was the naval support offered by Genoa and Pisa, whose merchant adventurers hoped to control the Indian spice trade that passed through the Red Sea and on to Alexandria in Egypt

What were the significant characteristics of the Cluny monastery in Burgundy and its relationship with the papacy?

The first successful attempts to restore the spiritual authority of the Latin Church can be traced to the founding of a new kind of monastery in Burgundy (now southeastern France). In 910, a Benedictine abbey called Cluny freed itself from any obligation to local families by placing itself under the direct protection of the papacy. And although it had a wealthy benefactor, that benefactor relinquished any control over Cluny's property; instead, he and his family and descendants were granted special spiritual privileges in exchange for their support, thus guaranteeing their eternal reward in Heaven.

Which Italian maritime republics benefited the most economically from the Crusades? What were the military gains for both Westerners and Muslims during the Crusades?

The greatest economic gains went to the Italian maritime republics of Venice and Genoa, and Islamic merchants came to depend on western markets for their goods. Both sides also gained in military terms; Westerners learned new techniques of fortification, and Muslims learned new methods of siege warfare and new respect for the uses of heavy cavalry

What conditions led to the growth of medieval TOWNS and why did the formation of urban COMMUNES foster new types of liberty?

The growth of medieval towns was primarily a consequence of evolving economic and social dynamics, resulting from the transition from the feudal system to a more diverse and intricate economy. This transformation created opportunities for trade and commerce, leading to the emergence of towns around economic focal points like ports, trade routes, and markets. Population growth and agricultural expansion, which boosted food and goods production, also contributed to the demand for markets and trading centers. Moreover, the growth of artisanal and craft industries within these towns further drove economic expansion and specialization. ---In parallel, the formation of urban communes became a significant development, allowing town residents to assert increased political and economic independence from feudal authorities. These communes, formed by townspeople banding together, offered a platform for greater self-governance, enabling citizens to partake in leadership selection, lawmaking, and public administration. The communes often established their legal codes and governance systems, challenging feudal dominance and promoting individual freedom and autonomy among their members.

What role did the availability of a strong currency play in the development of trade and commerce in medieval Europe, and which regions were the earliest participants in this commercial revolution due to their access to a regulated currency?

The growth of towns and trade depended not only on surplus goods, initiative, and mobility, it also depended on money. It is no accident that the earliest participants in the commercial revolution of the Middle Ages were cities located in regions whose rulers minted and regulated a strong currency: Byzantium, Al-Andalus, Christian kingdoms of Spain, the old Roman region of Provence (southern France), Anglo-Saxon England, and Flanders.

What were the technological advancements that drove the agricultural boom of the Middle Ages, and how did they impact agricultural productivity in northern Europe?

The heavy-wheeled plow, fitted with an iron-tipped coulter and dragged by a team of oxen or horses, could cut and turn the rich soil of northern Europe far more effectively than traditional Mediterranean plows. Related improvements in collars and harnesses enhanced the efficiency of plow oxen and even made it possible for horses to pull heavy loads without choking themselves. The development of iron horseshoes (around 900) and the tandem harnessing of paired teams (around 1050) also made the use of horses more effective, not only in the field but for the transport of agricultural surpluses to new markets. Since most work was done by individuals using hand tools, the more widespread use of iron for hoes, forks, shovels, and scythes made work faster and easier. The wheelbar- row was a crucial invention, as was the harrow, a tool drawn over the field after plowing to level the earth and mix in the seed. Watermills represented another major innovation. The Romans had relied mainly on human- and animal-powered wheels to grind grain into flour, even though they had known about the use of running water as a power source.

What was the impetus for the consolidation of manors during the Middle Ages?

The impetus for the consolidation of manors came from the peasants themselves. Large fields could be farmed more efficiently than small fields. Investment costs were lower and could be shared equally: a single plow and a dozen oxen might suffice for an entire village, obviating the need for every farmer to maintain his own plow and team. In time, prosperous peasants might be able to establish a parish church, a communal oven, a blacksmith, a mill, and a tavern. They could also converse, socialize, and assist their neighbors.

How and why did MUSLIM LEARNING AND CULTURE exercise a profound influence on western Europeans?

The interaction between the Islamic world and Western Europe during various historical periods had profound and lasting impacts. Firstly, during the Islamic Golden Age (8th to 14th centuries), Muslim scholars played a pivotal role in advancing knowledge across numerous fields and preserving ancient Greek and Roman texts. These translations introduced Western Europeans to new ideas, profoundly shaping Western intellectual and scientific traditions. Secondly, the Crusades facilitated cultural exchange, with both sides learning from each other, resulting in the introduction of Islamic customs, ideas, and technologies to Western Europe, including new goods that influenced trade and commerce. Thirdly, the period of Muslim rule in Spain (711-1492) led to a flourishing of Islamic culture, which left a lasting imprint on Western European culture through influences on architecture, music, cuisine, and the preservation and transmission of classical Greek and Roman texts, significantly impacting Western European intellectual and literary traditions.

IDENTIFY the most important outcomes of the medieval agricultural revolution

The medieval agricultural revolution in Europe brought about a series of transformative changes. Adoption of advanced agricultural techniques, including innovations like the heavy plow and the three-field system, led to increased food production, supporting a growing population and the expansion of urban centers. This rise in food availability enhanced nutrition, resulting in improved health and longer lifespans. Furthermore, the revolution encouraged greater agricultural diversity, with the cultivation of new crops, such as beans, peas, and turnips, adding variety to diets. The surplus crops fueled the growth of trade networks and the development of market towns, contributing to social and economic shifts. The emergence of towns and cities led to the establishment of new social and economic systems, while surplus crops facilitated the rise of new classes of merchants and traders.

What were the most successful cities in Italy around the turn of the millennium and how did their prosperity depend on the Byzantine emperors' suppression of piracy in the eastern Mediterranean?

The renewed prosperity of Italy depended on the Byzantine emperors' suppression of piracy in the eastern Mediterranean. Hence, the most successful cities around the turn of the millennium were situated in the Byzantine-controlled areas of the peninsula: Venice in the north and Amalfi, Naples, and Palermo in the south; These were the trading posts that brought silks, spices, and other luxuries from the East into western Europe. In the eleventh century, however, Norman invasions of southern Italy disrupted this trade and Turkish invasions of Asia Minor turned Byzantine attentions to the empire's eastern frontier. This opened new opportunities to the northern ports of Genoa and Pisa, whose merchant navies took over the task of policing the eastern Mediterranean.

How did the Jewish communities in medieval Europe become both targets of persecution and sought-after sources of financial support for rulers, and what role did Christian hypocrisy play in this dynamic? Furthermore, how did the negative perception of Jews in medieval Europe contribute to the circulation of harmful conspiracy theories, and in what ways did the reliance of Jewish communities on others make them vulnerable?

The moral stigma attaching to the necessary practice of money lending meant that Jews were often the ones targeted at times of crisis, just as they were the people to whom rulers would turn most readily when they needed funds—helping to explain why many kings, princes, and bishops protected the Jewish communities in their realms and often extended special privileges to them in exchange for money ---The unfortunate result of Christian hypocrisy was the circulation of conspiracy theories harmful to Jews, who were perceived as exercising control over Christians through secret channels of communication and a stranglehold on finance. Jewish communities' reliance on the protection of powerful men also made them vulnerable when those men withdrew their support or were incapable of controlling the violence unleashed by their own policies.

Who were the most powerful monarchs on the Continent during this period and what was their relationship with Charlemagne?

The most powerful monarchs on the Continent at this time were the Saxon kings of eastern Francia (modern Germany). Like the Anglo-Saxon kings of England, they modeled themselves on Charlemagne, but they drew on different aspects of his rule

What were some factors that enabled the widespread adoption of new agricultural technologies in the Middle Ages?

The new technologies that took hold after the settlement of Viking and Magyar peoples decreased the threat of invasion and the consequent disruption of planting cycles and damage to crops. Left in relative peace, monasteries could develop and implement the tools, which were then copied by local lords who saw the benefits of managing their own lands more efficiently, rather than raiding others

What were some of the factors that contributed to the emergence of new families as territorial lords during the tenth and eleventh centuries in western Europe, and how did this affect the social structure of the time?

The new wealth of western Europe fostered social mobility, and created a more stratified society. In the Carolingian period, the nobility had comprised a relatively small number of ancient families who counted one another as equals and married among themselves. During the tenth and eleventh centuries, however, new families began to emerge as territorial lords, rivaling and sometimes surpassing the old aristocracy in power and wealth. Some of these new families were descended from lesser officeholders in the Carolingian administration, men who had established independent powers after the empire collapsed, and who used their public offices for private gain. Others, successful interlopers who seized control of undefended manors, sustained war-bands of treasure-hungry young men.

EXPLAIN the reasons for the fragmentation of political power throughout most of Europe in ninth and tenth centuries

The political landscape of medieval Europe during the ninth and tenth centuries was marked by a series of complex factors. External invasions by groups like the Vikings, Magyars, and Saracens disrupted existing power structures, creating new political entities. The decline of centralized authority, initially filled by Germanic kingdoms after the fall of the Roman Empire, led to increasing decentralization as power shifted to local lords and nobles, a trend exacerbated by Viking invasions. Feudalism, which emerged during this period, further fragmented political power, as lords granted land to vassals in exchange for service. Moreover, the diversity of ethnic and cultural groups in Europe, each with distinct political structures and traditions, added complexity to the efforts to establish centralized political authority.

How did the possession and display of relics in monasteries contribute to the generation of revenue and attract pilgrims seeking cures or favors, with specific reference to the fame of certain saints like Saint Nicholas and their association with miracles and gift-giving?

The possession and display of relics thus became a way for monasteries to garner attention and generate revenue, since those who sought cures or favors at the shrine of a saint would often make a donation to the monastery in the saint's honor. If a saint was especially famous for a particular type of miracle, pilgrims might travel thousands of miles to visit a shrine. Saint Nicholas was famous for increasing the wealth of his suppliants, and for bestowing gifts—hence his later incarnation as Santa Claus.

What was the role of castles in the emergence of predatory lords in western Europe during the tenth and eleventh centuries?

The predatory lords who emerged in this period protected their territories, their families, and their followers by building castles. The castle was both defensive and offensive. It rendered its owner more secure from arson and attack—though it was vulnerable to siege—and it enabled him to dominate the surrounding countryside.

What initiatives were taken by lords to foster the rapid urbanization of Europe in the eleventh and twelfth centuries?

The rapid urbanization of Europe in the eleventh and twelfth centuries was fostered by the initiatives of lords who saw the economic advantages to be gained from providing safe havens for travelers and trade.

DESCRIBE the effects of the reforming movement with the Church

The reforming movement in medieval Europe brought about several noteworthy outcomes. It aimed to strengthen the authority of the papacy and assert the Church's supremacy over secular rulers, resulting in the development of new legal and administrative structures that established the papacy as a potent political force. The movement reorganized the Church, fostering the creation of monastic orders, religious communities, and an increased focus on religious education and training. Moreover, it promoted personal piety and spiritual devotion, reviving practices like confession, penance, and pilgrimage. However, the efforts to assert Church authority sometimes led to conflicts with secular rulers, especially when the Church sought to limit their influence. The reforming movement also left a lasting impact on European art and culture, giving rise to new forms of religious art and architecture, exemplified by Gothic cathedrals and illuminated manuscripts.

What did europeans adopt from the Arabics in this time and by who?

The study and practical applications of mathematics were revolutionized when Europeans adopted what from the Arabic numerals and the concept of zero—first promoted in western Europe, not surprisingly, by the son of a Pisan merchant who grew up in Algeria, Leonardo Fibonacci (c.1170-c.1250). --By 1143, a scholar called Robert of Ketton (c. 1100-c. 1160), originally from a small town in England, had completed a Latin translation of the Qu'ran, working in Spain with the encouragement of the abbot of Cluny. By the end of the tenth century, Arabic translations of Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, and other Greek authors were widely available and intensively studied throughout the Muslim world

Why is "FEUDALISM" a problematic concept?

The term "feudalism," coined in the 17th and 18th centuries to describe medieval Europe's political and social structure, oversimplifies the complexity and diversity of the era. It falsely suggests uniformity and stability across the medieval period, ignoring significant regional and chronological variations. Different forms of political and social organization existed alongside or in opposition to feudalism, further complicating the concept. Additionally, "feudalism" has been used to describe a wide range of economic, social, and political practices, potentially leading to confusion. This term can also be misused to legitimize oppressive systems of power, obscuring how power was often constructed and maintained through coercion and violence, such as the divine right of kings or the exploitation of peasants by lords.

What were the objectives and outcomes of the crusading efforts that took place after the recapture of Jerusalem, with a focus on the attempts to target Egypt and North Africa? Additionally, how did the fall of Acre in 1291 signify the end of a significant Western European presence in the region, until Napoleon's brief conquests in the late eighteenth century?

Thereafter, crusading efforts were modest and aimed mainly at Egypt and, in 1270, North Africa. The strategic goal of these ventures was to cut the economic lifelines that supported Muslims in the Holy Land, but the only people who stood to gain from this were merchants who still dreamed of controlling the Far Eastern trade that ran through Egypt as well as the sub-Saharan gold trade that ran through Tunis ---The only Latin kingdom that survived throughout these centuries was Acre (Akko in northern Israel), and its fall in 1291 marked the end of any viable western European presence in the region—until the short- lived conquests of Napolean at the end of the eighteenth century

What were some of the challenges faced by urban areas in medieval Europe in their pursuit of independence, and what were the consequences for those who resisted the efforts of towns to claim autonomy?

Urban areas further expanded through the constant immigration of free peasants and escaped serfs in search of a better life. For once a town had established its independence, newcomers could claim the status of citizens after a year and a day. Thereafter, the only authority to which they were subject was that of the town's officials. For this reason, some powerful lords and rulers resisted the efforts of towns to claim independence. Almost inevitably, though, they paid a high price for this; In Rome, the pope's claim to secular authority over the city led to frequent uprisings. In the French city of Laon, the bishop who asserted his lordship over a newly formed commune was murdered in 1112. In 1127, the count of Flanders, Charles the Good (r. 1119-27), was assassinated by a family of powerful officials who resented his claims that they were, in fact, his serfs.

What were some of the motivating factors that led tens of thousands of warriors and their families to embark on the First Crusade despite the high risks and substantial costs involved in the journey?

Within a year, tens of thousands of warriors and a large number of women and children from all over western Europe were on the march toward Constantinople, where they intended to gather before departing for Jerusalem. After fulfilling their vows, the vast majority went home because the risks of dying on such a journey were high; the costs of embarking were enormous. Crusading knights needed a minimum of two years' revenues in hand to finance the journey. To raise such sums, most were forced to mortgage lands and borrow heavily from family, friends, monasteries, and merchants. They then had to find some way to pay back these loans if and when they returned home. By any rational assessment, the Crusade was a fool's errand.

The Concordat established the idea that:

bishops received their nonreligious powers from political leaders and their religious powers from the pope. Their rights and duties as landlords, for example, came from the king, while their powers over religious affairs came from the pope.

What limits did the crusades represent? How did trade with the Islamic world have any significance?

the Crusades represent the limits of western Europe's expansion during this otherwise extraordinary period of growth; Trade with the Islamic world, and beyond it with India and the Far East, brought enormous prosperity to some Italian maritime powers, but these trading links had existed before the Crusades and continued after they ended

What was the issue that Gregory and Henry argued over and what was it's significance?

the issue that divided Gregory and Henry was that of investiture, the right to appoint bishops and to equip them with the trappings of office. Since the time of the Carolingians, this had been the prerogative of the emperor, but to Gregory, this practice smacked of simony, since a lay lord would obviously choose bishops who would be politically useful to him, regardless of their spiritual qualifications.

How did the papal reform movement, led by Pope Gregory VII, strive to free the Church from secular influences and strengthen its own power? What was the rationale behind discouraging clerical marriage, and how did it relate to the protection of Church offices and property for the Church's benefit?

the papal reform movement as it developed under Gregory was predicated on liberating the Church from powerful worldly influences in order that the Church itself might become more worldly and powerful. This was the principle that lay behind the discouraging of clerical marriage, too: Church offices and Church property had to be protected by the Church for the Church. Allowing priests to marry might encourage the handing down of offices to sons, just as allowing rulers to appoint bishops encouraged these bishops to act as the rulers' agents.

What were the causes of the INVESTITURE CONFLICT?

unfolded in the 11th and 12th centuries, was a multifaceted struggle with several interconnected elements. Firstly, it involved the widespread practice of lay investiture, where secular rulers appointed bishops and church officials, thereby exerting control over the Church, a move perceived as a threat to the papacy's authority and independence. Secondly, a reform movement within the Church, championed by figures like Pope Gregory VII, sought to purify the Church by eliminating corrupt practices such as simony and lay investiture. Simultaneously, the papacy aimed to enhance its power, leading to clashes with secular rulers seeking to expand their authority, forming the third dimension of this conflict. Finally, the rivalry between different European rulers, including the Holy Roman Emperor, and the kings of France and England, added to the strife, as these rulers aimed to strengthen their influence within the Church by appointing bishops and officials loyal to them. These elements combined to create the Investiture Conflict, a complex struggle over the balance of power between the Church and secular authorities in medieval Europe.