Chapter 1-4
Cognitive psychology focuses on studying ________. A. thoughts and their relationship to our experiences and our actions B. the effect of gender, race, and class on behavior C. genetics and the effect of genetics on behavior D. sensation and the effect of culture on perception
A
Edmund wants to identify relatively consistent patterns of thought and behavior, measure these traits, and determine how these traits interact in a particular context to determine how a person will behave in any given situation. Edmund wants to conduct research in the area of ________. A. personality B. perception C. social psychology D. cognition
A
For a scientific explanation to be testable, it must also be ________. A. perceivable and measurable B. experimental and provable C. conscious and unconscious D. hypothesized and theoretical
A
In a ________ dream, people become aware that they are dreaming and can control the dream's content. Use letters in alphabetical order to select options A. lucid B. K-complex C. REM D. theta wave
A
A difference in ________ can explain why one person dies from a disease and another person survives. A. behavior B. demographics C. evolution D. genetics
D
According to William James, the purpose of psychology was to ________. A. interpret dreams B. study the structure and characteristics of the mind C. manipulate human behavior D. study the function of behavior
D
Behaviorists study ________. A. a person's unconscious mind B. chemical and hormonal changes C. dreams D. learned behavior
D
Both agonists and antagonists bind to ________. A. cell membranes B. synapses C. neurotransmitters D. receptors
D
Which of the following terms describes a relationship between two or more variables? A. reliability B. replication C. validity D. correlation
D
Which term refers to the space between two neurons? A. terminal button B. vesicle C. soma D. synapse
D
Which theory suggests that when people are hypnotized they have voluntarily divided their conscious: one half aware of reality and the other half tuned in to the hypnotist? A. cognitive behavioral B. social-cognitive C. Junigan D. dissociative
D
Which type of chemical messenger do the male gonads secrete? A. endorphins B. dopamine C. estrogens D. androgens
D
While ________ is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform ________ alone. A. meditation; somnambulism B. somnambulism; meditation C. meditation; hypnosis D. hypnosis; meditation
D
________ (IRB) reviews research that is conducted using human participants. A. Institutional Review Bureau B. Institutional Research Board C. Institutional Research Bureau D. Institutional Review Board
D
________ is/are often conducted with large numbers of participants and can even be conducted by phone, email, or mail. A. archival research B. university experiments C. case studies D. surveys
D
A series of dots arranged in the shape of a face will be perceived as a face, not a series of dots. A psychologist studying this phenomenon is applying the principles of ________. A. Gestalt psychology B. structuralism C. humanism D. psychoanalytic theory
A
A(n) ________ is a chamber that isolates the subject from the external environment. A. Skinner box B. gestaltlaten C. Watson manipulator D. isolate
A
Alcohol is considered a ________ because it tends to suppress central nervous system activity. A. depressant B. antipsychotic C. stimulant D. hallucinogen
A
As shown by EEG recordings of new practitioners, _________ is not an altered state of consciousness; however, patterns of brain waves exhibited by expert practitioners may represent a unique state of consciousness. A. meditation B. cognizance C. narcolepsy D. insomnia
A
Ashya wants to focus on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior. What area of psychology should she work in? A. clinical psychology B. cognitive psychology C. social psychology D. organizational psychology
A
In order to assess whether viewpoints on decriminalization of marijuana for medical purposes change with age, four groups of participants, ages 20, 30, 40, and 50, are asked whether they support this issue. What is one flaw of this design? A. Social or cultural factors may influence the results, not age. B. Recruitment could be a challenge because people of different ages are difficult to sample. C. Longitudinal research is time consuming. D. Marijuana has already been decriminalized in some places.
A
In what stage of sleep do sleep spindles appear? A. 2 B. 3 C. 1 D. 4
A
Joanna, a sociology major, believes that money is the key to happiness. Her friend Ryan, a psychology major, believes that good health is the key to happiness. How might the two friends resolve their disagreement? A. They could research peer-reviewed articles to see if either perspective is supported. B. They could ask their friends and see which perspective has the most support. C. They could conduct a study with students on their campus to see which perspective has the most support. D. They could research archives of newspapers, magazines, and other media to see if there are reports on the topic.
A
Katia is experiencing a state of extreme self-focus and attention. Her brother is trying to get her attention, but she ignores him. Her phone is buzzing, but she doesn't notice. This state was most likely induced through ________. A. hypnosis B. K-complex manipulation C. methamphetamines D. cognitive behavioral therapy
A
Morphine is considered a(n) ________ because it decreases pain. A. opioid B. hallucinogen C. antipsychotic D. stimulant
A
Physical dependence on a drug is indicated by the user experiencing ________ as a result of discontinuing use of the drug. A. changes in normal bodily functions B. psychological stress C. psychological distress D. a return to normal performance levels
A
Psychoanalytic theory focuses on ________ and early childhood experiences. A. a person's unconscious mind B. sexual identity C. fetal development D. a person's consciousness
A
Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as ________. A. the scientific method B. inductive reasoning C. deductive reasoning D. the experiment
A
Studying close relatives allows behavioral geneticists to determine ________. A. the contributions of genes and environment in a population B. how behaviors have changed over time C. the effect of genes and environment on behavior D. whether genes or environment cause a behavior or trait
A
The ________ variable measures effects of the independent variable. A. dependent B. correlational C. experimental D. confounding
A
The empirical method of study is based on ________. A. observation B. guesswork C. practice D. statistics
A
The scientific process is ________, involving both inductive and deductive reasoning. A. circular B. perfectionistic C. cyclical D. unpredictable
A
When studying personality traits, someone who is hardworking, dependable, and organized will score high on the ________ trait. A. conscientiousness B. extroversion C. neuroticism D. agreeableness
A
Which correlation coefficient best represents a moderate relationship showing fewer anxiety symptoms in people who report higher life satisfaction? A. -0.5 B. +0.4 C. -0.2 D. +0.7
A
Which of the following are the two major subdivisions of the nervous system? A. Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system B. Parasympathetic nervous system and sympathetic nervous system C. Central nervous system and somatic nervous system D. Autonomic nervous system and sympathetic nervous system
A
Which of the following asserts that our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with our genes to determine where within those boundaries we will fall? A. range of reaction B. environmental psychology C. evolutionary psychology D. behavioral genetics
A
Which of the following determines whether there are meaningful differences between two groups in a study? A. statistical analysis B. validity assessment C. correlation coefficient D. scatterplot
A
Which of the following is a criticism of structuralism? A. The process was highly subjective. B. Scientific instruments were not sensitive enough to measure precise reaction times. C. Structuralism was parsimonious. D. Wilhelm Wundt falsified his results.
A
Which of the following is a limitation that affects the generalizability of research results? A. small sample size B. control groups C. random assignment D. operational definition
A
Which of the following is not a limbic system structure? A. substantia nigra B. amygdala C. hippocampus D. hypothalamus
A
Which of the following is not an endocrine gland? A. hypothalamus B. ovaries C. pineal gland D. thyroid
A
Which of the following is not part of feminist psychology? A. favoring women over men B. questioning the practice of science itself when it is male-biased C. studying psychological gender differences D. discovering the contributions of women to psychology
A
Which of the following sits on the kidneys and secretes hormones when a person is in a state of stress? A. adrenal gland B. hypothalamus C. pancreas D. thyroid gland
A
Which of the following would be difficult to assess using empirical research? A. whether the id, ego, or superego is most responsible for emotional reactions B. the reaction time for participants to indicate they heard a ball drop on a table C. the abilities of non-human primates to use sign language D. whether a baby is crying because he is sad, hungry, or in pain
A
Which research method involves repeatedly studying the same group of participants over an extended period of time? A. longitudinal B. correlational C. archival D. cross-sectional
A
Which term describes the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system? A. homeostasis B. insomnia C. rhythm D. melatonin
A
Which term refers to the difference in charge between the intracellular and extracellular space of a neuron? A. membrane potential B. extracellular fluid C. resting potential D. intracellular fluid
A
Why do scientists refer to Charles Darwin's ideas about evolution as the theory of evolution? A. A theory is the best understanding that we have of that part of the natural world. B. Evolution only works theoretically. C. After numerous hypotheses were developed by Charles Darwin, they were collected together into a theory. D. Contemporary scientists do not accept it as a viable way of looking at the world.
A
________ is a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans. A. humanism B. structuralism C. gestalt D. behaviorism
A
Ali is aware of his feelings, emotions, and thoughts. He is also aware of his surroundings, the warmth of the sun, and the sound of nearby traffic. Ali is in a state of ________. A. unconsciousness B. consciousness C. REM sleep D. conscience
B
Behaviorism focuses on making psychology an objective science by studying ________ A. implicit motivations for behavior through the use of implicit association tests B. overt behavior and deemphasizing the importance of unobservable mental processes C. how emotional responses influence behavior while deemphasizing the importance of the subconscious D. the genetic basis for behavior and theorizing how instincts influence behavior
B
Critical thinking is ________ A. reviewing information on the internet to develop a critical opinion on it B. applying a set of skills to understand and evaluate information C. applying information to understand and evaluate social phenomena D. applying a set of skills to find information about a controversial topic
B
Guillermo spends some time each day applying the principles of structuralism to examine his own conscious experience as carefully as possible. Guillermo is engaged in ________. A. client-centered therapy B. introspection C. behaviorism D. psychoanalysis
B
Human eggs and sperm each contain 23 ________, which are composed of long strands of DNA. A. zygotes B. chromosomes C. phenotypes D. genes
B
In a ________ study, both the researchers and the participants are unaware of the group assignments. A. control B. double-blind C. randomly assigned D. pilot
B
In which lobe of the brain is the auditory cortex located? A. occipital B. temporal C. parietal D. frontal
B
Kayla smokes marijuana. At first, just a few inhalations were enough to alter her senses. Over time, she needs to smoke more and more to achieve the same effect. This is an example of ________. A. withdrawal B. tolerance C. physical dependence D. psychological dependence
B
Research on ________ subjects typically involves ________. A. animal; a full debriefing B. human; obtaining informed consent C. animal; obtaining informed consent D. human; a full debriefing
B
Sensory and motor neurons of the ________ nervous system are associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary. A. sympathetic B. somatic C. autonomic D. parasympathetic
B
Spurling et al. investigated the effects of two vocabulary learning strategies on word retention two weeks later. In this example, learning strategy is the ________ variable and word retention is the ________ variable. A. experimental; control B. independent; dependent C. control; experimental D. dependent; independent
B
The Tuskegee Syphilis Study was ethically problematic because ________. A. the study was continued for approximately 40 years B. participants were not allowed to seek available treatment C. only black men were invited to participate D. penicillin was not administered to the men's wives
B
The ________ gland is often referred to as the master gland of the endocrine system. A. adrenal B. pituitary C. testes D. thyroid
B
The ________ nervous system is responsible for responses such as pupil dilation, increased heart rate, and increased respiration. A. parasympathetic B. sympathetic C. somatic D. autonomic
B
The ________ nervous system is responsible for stimulating digestion and causing the bladder to contract. A. autonomic B. parasympathetic C. somatic D. sympathetic
B
The endocrine system consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances known as ________. A. factors B. hormones C. neurotransmitters D. proteins
B
The hidden meaning of a dream is called the ________ content. A. alpha B. latent C. manifest D. Freudian
B
The only way to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables is to conduct a(n) ________. A. data search B. experiment C. study D. survey
B
Theresa's mother has blue eyes and her father has brown eyes. The allele for brown eye color is dominant (B) to the allele for blue eye color (b), but Theresa has blue eyes. Therefore, Theresa's ________ must be ________, and her father's must be Bb. A. phenotype; bb B. genotype; bb C. genotype; Bb D. phenotype; Bb
B
What do structuralism, Gestalt psychology, and Sigmund Freud all have in common? A. They were all concerned with the nature of evil during the Nazi regime. B. They were all concerned with describing and understanding the inner experience C. They were all concerned with describing and understanding animal behavior. D. They were all concerned with diagnosing and treating female psychosis.
B
What hormone does the pineal gland release? A. insulin B. melatonin C. testosterone D. estrogen
B
What is Abraham Maslow best known for? A. studying the influence of reinforcement and punishment on behavior B. proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior C. classical conditioning D. dream analysis
B
Which kind of psychological area does the work of Jean Piaget exemplify? A. B. C. D.
B
Which of the following areas is located in the frontal lobe of the brain? A. Wernicke's area B. Broca's area C. hippocampus D. thalamus
B
Which of the following causes a sleep debt? A. high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior B. insufficient sleep on a chronic basis C. travel between time zones D. the circadian rhythm
B
Which of the following involves a virtual reality model of the world? A. lucid dreaming B. protoconsciousness C. manifest content D. stage 1 sleep
B
Which of the following is a midbrain structure critical to movement? A. the pons B. the ventral tegmental area C. Wernicke's area D. the medulla
B
Which of the following refers to the ability of an instrument or tool to accurately measure what it is supposed to measure? A. generalizability B. validity C. operational definition D. reliability
B
Why is psychology considered a social science? A.Because psychology is not considered a hard science. B. Behavior is biological, and our behavior is influenced by our interactions with others. C.Because psychologists study groups and how groups interact D.Behavior is unpredictable, so scientists study it.
B
A theta wave is a type of ________. A. low frequency, high amplitude brain wave B. brain wave associated with sleep spindles C. low frequency, low amplitude brain wave D. brain wave associated with critical thinking
C
A(n) ________ is a well-developed set of ideas that proposes an explanation for observed phenomena. A. operational definition B. hypothesis C. theory D. conclusion
C
Diabetes is a(n) ________ disorder because insulin is a ________. A. endocrine; neurotransmitter B. neurological; hormone C. endocrine; hormone D.neurological; neurotransmitter
C
Elaina has been diagnosed with a small brain tumor. She first went to see her doctor after experiencing symptoms such as feeling very cold, almost fainting, having a reduced appetite, and feeling less sexual desire. Which of the following structures is her tumor most likely affecting? A. Broca's area B. substantia nigra C. hypothalamus D. thalamus
C
Gyri and sulci are the ________ and ________, respectively. They characterize the surface of the human brain. A. fissures; folds B. cortex; forebrain C. folds; grooves D. grooves; folds
C
In Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the ________ include food, water, and shelter A. higher-level needs B. comfort objects C. basic survival needs D. wants
C
Mescaline is considered a ________ because it results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences. A. opioid B. stimulant C. hallucinogenic D. depressant
C
Patwardhan et al. report data from a study where they hired experimental confederates to pose as daters at speed dating events and take notes on the behaviors of other participants. Which type of research method did they use? A. survey B. experiment C. naturalistic observation D. case study
C
Polygenic means that most traits are controlled by ________. A. a single gene B. different genes under different circumstances C. more than one gene D. different parts of only a few different genes
C
Regular feelings of hunger are an example of a(n) ________ rhythm. A. axon B. heterostatic C. biological D. suprachiasmatic
C
Researchers are concerned that their own beliefs and the beliefs of study participants may skew the results of an experiment. Which of the following would eliminate this problem? A. Forming a double-control group B. Conducting a single-blind study C. Conducting a double-blind study D. Establishing operational definitions
C
Susan wants to study prejudice, attraction, how we explain our own behavior versus how we explain the behavior of others, and how we resolve interpersonal conflicts. Susan should conduct research in the area of ________. A. personality B. Gestalt psychology C. social psychology D. psychoanalysis
C
Tariq depends on cigarettes to relieve his stress, though he smokes so infrequently that he experiences no significant, noticeable physical symptoms when he is not smoking. What does this exemplify? A. tolerance B. physical dependence C. psychological dependence D. withdrawal
C
The ________ rhythm occurs over approximately 24 hours. A. meta B. pineal C. circadian D. homeostatic
C
The ________ wave is characteristic of stage 1 sleep. Use letters in alphabetical order to select options A. delta B. kappa C. alpha D. beta
C
The belief that strange behavior is linked to the occurrence of a full moon is an example of a(n) ________. A. experimental finding B. correlation C. illusory correlation D. fact
C
The myelin sheath consists of a(n) ________. A. terminal button B. soma C. glial cell D. receptor
C
When people who have REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) are sleeping, they are likely to _________. A. stop breathing B. walk around and cry C. punch and scratch D. snore loudly
C
When studying personality traits, someone who is practical, conventional, and prefers routine will score low on the ________ trait. A. neuroticism B. extroversion C. openness D. agreeableness
C
Which aspect of the scientific method occurs first? A. data collection B. observation C. hypothesis D. experiment
C
Which of the following best describes Noam Chomsky? A. A social scientist who established the American Psychological Association B. A European researcher who studied the idea of object permanence among children C. An American linguist who influenced the cognitive revolution D. A psychologist who developed a client-centered approach to therapy
C
Which of the following is a scientific way of determining facts? A. Utilizing natural intuition B. Developing a theory C. Using empirical studies D. Gathering common opinions
C
Which of the following is a type of sleep disorder in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity occurs? A. REM phase B. insomnia C. parasomnia D. NREM phase
C
Which of the following is asserted by the social cognitive theory of hypnosis? A. People can hypnotize themselves if they try hard enough. B. No one can actually be hypnotized. C. People in hypnotic states are performing the social role of a hypnotized person. D. Hypnosis is essentially an associated state of consciousness.
C
Which of the following is not involved in critical thinking? A. recognizing internal biases B. maintaining an attitude of skepticism C. knowing your opinion is correct D. making use of logical thinking
C
Which of the following refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result? A. generalizability B. validity C. reliability D. statistical significance
C
Which of the following terms refers to a state of equilibrium in which biological conditions (such as body temperature) are maintained at optimal levels? A. reuptake B. synergy C. homeostasis D. resting potential
C
Which theorist published research related to the psychology of personality? A. Charles Darwin B. Noam Chomsky C. Sigmund Freud D. Jean Piaget
C
Which of the following refers to the electrical signal that typically moves from the cell body down the axon to the axon terminals? A. depolarization B. hyperpolarization C. threshold of excitation D. action potential
D
Cocaine is considered a ________ drug because it tends to increase overall levels of neural activity. A. hallucinogen B. depressant C. antipsychotic D. stimulant
D
Dr. Mattar wants to learn about the effects of brain injury to the occipital cortex, so she observes a few patients to gain in-depth knowledge about their behaviors. Which type of research method is Dr. Mattar using? A. Medical survey B. Cross-sectional research C. Archival research D. Clinical study
D
Drs. Goran and Lieberman are interested in assessing pain threshold differences between men and women. They recruit male and female participants and assign them to different experimental conditions to a study that assesses tolerance for thermal pain. However, their primary independent variable (gender) is a subject variable. This is an example of a(n) ________ study. A. case B. correlational C. experimental D. quasi-experimental
D
During the fight or flight response, which of the following endocrine glands is most likely to increase activity? A. pancreas B. testes C. thyroid D. adrenal
D
Ethics need to be considered when ________ scientific research. A. conducting and reviewing B. designing and reviewing C. reviewing and publishing D. designing, conducting, and reviewing
D
Functionalist psychologists focus on the function of behavior and ________. A. explaining the subconscious B. understanding the id, ego, and superego C. the operation of the individual parts of the mind D. the operation of the whole mind rather than the individual parts
D
In order to maximize the chances that experimental groups represent the population of interest, researchers should conduct ________ and ________. A. blind group assignment; blind sampling B. blind group assignment; random sampling C. blind sampling; random group assignment D. random sampling; random group assignment
D
Individuals undergoing hypnosis ________ A. can be coerced into harming themselves and others by a skilled hypnotist B.report no memory of the events that occurred during the period they were hypnotized C.usually do not have clear memories of the hypnotic experience and are not in control of their own behaviors D. usually have clear memories of the hypnotic experience and are in control of their own behaviors
D
Marie is aware that she is dreaming when she has a nightmare, so she concentrates and changes her dream from bad to good. This situation illustrates ________ dreaming. A. internal B. external C. stage 1 D. lucid
D
Most people are awake during the day and asleep at night because their ________ cycles are aligned with the outside world. A. external B. homeostatic C. melatonin D. circadian
D
NREM sleep is a period of sleep ________. A. that overlaps REM sleep B. that always occurs immediately after REM sleep C. associated with lucid dreaming D. outside periods of REM sleep
D
Naghemeh wants to focus on the emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes of individuals who are considered psychologically healthy. Which area of psychology should she work in? A. biopsychology B. wellness psychology C. clinical psychology D. counseling psychology
D
Of adoptees whose biological mothers had schizophrenia and who were raised in disturbed family environments, 36.8% were likely to develop schizophrenia. Of adoptees whose mothers did not have schizophrenia and who were raised in disturbed family environments, 5.3% were likely to develop schizophrenia. What is the most appropriate conclusion of these results? A. Environmental factors are most important to determining whether a person is likely to develop schizophrenia. B. Genetic factors are most important to determining whether a person is likely to develop schizophrenia. C. Not enough information is provided in order to make a conclusion about environmental versus genetic contributions to schizophrenia. D. Environmental factors and genetic factors interact to determine whether a person is likely to develop schizophrenia.
D
Peer reviewers ________. A. work for the authors of scientific articles B. publish scientific research findings C. are similar to magazine and journal editors D. help ensure the quality of scientific findings
D
Sleepwalking is also referred to as ________. A. night terror B. restless leg syndrome C. somniloquy D. somnambulism
D
Sleepwalking, night terrors, and restless leg syndrome are all examples of________. A. protoconscioisness B. somnambulism C. lucid dreaming D. parasomnias
D
The ________ is the deep groove that separates the brain into two halves. A. central gyrus B. hemisphere C. central sulci D. longitudinal fissure
D
The ________ of a neuron contain ________ that house neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers of the nervous system. A. axons; terminal buttons B. terminal buttons; transport proteins C. dendrites; synaptic vesicles D. terminal buttons; synaptic vesicles
D
The somatosensory cortex is responsible for processing ________. A. language, such as speech B. cognition and emotion C. motor information to body areas, such as arms D. temperature, touch, and pain
D
Which of the following reviews research that is conducted with animal subjects? A. IRB B. NIMH C. NIH D. IACUC
D
What should be changed to make the following sentence true? The brain's clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as the pineal nucleus. A. The word "clock" should be changed to the word "chronometer." B. The word "clock" should be changed to the word "circadian." C. The word "nucleus" should be changed to the word "gland." D. The word "pineal" should be changed to the word "suprachiasmatic.
D
When studying personality traits, someone who is helpful, trusting, and empathetic will score high on the ________ trait. A. conscientiousness B. openness C. neuroticism D. agreeableness
D
When studying personality traits, someone who is quiet, reserved, and withdrawn will score low on the ________ trait. A. openness B. neuroticism C. agreeableness D. extroversion
D
Which kind of psychologist would be consulted in jury selection and witness preparation? A. counseling B. legal C. cognitive D. forensic
D
Which of the following describes obstructive sleep apnea? A. Signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing are blocked in the hypothalamus. B. An individual dreams she cannot breathe and wakes up in a panic C. A disruption in signals that regulate breathing, which are sent from the brain, cause periods of interrupted breathing. D. An individual's airway becomes blocked during sleep.
D
Which of the following involves assessing the consistency of observations by different observers? A. attrition B. validity C. the control group D. inter-rater reliability
D
Which of the following is a function of the sympathetic nervous system? A. Constricting the pupils B. Constricting bronchi C. Stimulating digestion D. Increasing the heart rate
D
Which of the following is a neurotransmitter with roles in pleasure and pain modulation? A. acetylcholine B. GABA C. norepinephrine D. beta-endorphin
D
Which of the following is marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness? A. consciousness B. homeostasis C. circadian rhythm D. sleep
D
Which of the following is not part of obtaining informed consent? A. reviewing that data is confidential B. letting participants know that participation is voluntary C. obtaining the participant's signature or a signature from the parent or guardian if the participant is a minor D. explaining the hypothesis to the participants
D
Which of the following is the tendency to seek information that supports one's ideas or beliefs? A. experimenter bias B. sampling bias C. illusory correlation D. confirmation bias
D
Which of the following refers to a broad explanation or group of explanations for some aspect of the natural world that is consistently supported by evidence over time? A. -ology B. hypothesis C. pseudoscience D. scientific theory
D