Chapter 1 - A New World Of Many Cultures

the debate over the role of indians in the spanish colonies came to a head in a formal debate in 1550-1551 in Valladolid, SPain. -another priest, Juan Gines de Sepulveda argued that

indians were less than human -hence they benefited from serving the spaniards in the encomienda system

unlike the spanish, the english settled in areas without large native empires that could be controlled as a workforce -additionally,

many english colonies came in families rather than as a simple young men, so marriage with natives was less common.

the Incas, Aztecs, and Mayas -all 3 civilizations provided a stable food supply the incas ( what crop particularly)

potatoes

the french, looking for furs and converts to Catholicism, viewed american indians as

potential economic and military allies

in the early 1500s, certain Christians in Germany, England, France, Holland, and other northern European countries revolted against the authority of the pope. -their revolt was known as the

protestant Reformation.

North American tribes saw themselves as groups distinct from each other, not as part of a larger body of native americans -as a result, european settlers

rarely had to be converted with a unified response from the native americans

due to ottoman turks took over constantinople, the challenge to finding a new way to the rich Asian trade appeared to be by sailing either south along the west african coast east to china, or sailing west across the atlantic ocean. -in 1498, the portuguese sea captain Vasco da Gama was the first european to

reach India via this route. -by this time, columbus had attempted what he mistakenly believed would be a shorter route to Asia.

some of the most populous and complex societies in North America had disappeared by the 15th century, for what reason

reasons are not well understood

During the 1600s, the Netherlands also began to sponsor voyages of exploration -the dutch government hired Hnery HUdson, an experienced English sailor,, to

seek westward passage to Asia thorugh northern American -in 1609, while seraching for a northwest passage, he sailed up on a river that was later named, the Hudson River -this expedition established Dutch claims to the surrounding area that would become New Amsterdam ( and later new york) -the dutch government granted a private company, the dutch west india company, the right to control the region for economic gain

the Incas, Aztecs, and Mayas -all 3 civilizations provided a stable food supply the mayas and aztecs ( what crop particularly )

corn/maize

europe was also changing politically in the 15th century. -replacing the small kingdoms and the multiethnic empires were nation-states

countries in which the majority of people shared both a common culture and common loyalty toward a central government.

the Incas, Aztecs, and Mayas -all 3 civilizations

developed highly organized societies, carried on an extensive trade, and created calendars that were based on accurate scientific observations -cultivated crops that provide a stable food supply.

Great Plains: while the farming tribes also hunted buffalo, they lived permanently in

earthen lodges often along rivers. -they raised corn/maize, beans, and squash while activity trading with other tribes

The contrast of the Americas and the Europeans resulted in the Columbian Exchange. -europeans introduced to the Americas

sugar cane, bluegrasses, pigs, and horses, as well as the wheel, iron implements, and guns -deadlier than all the guns was the european importation of germs and diseases, such as smallpox and measles, to which the natives had no immunity. Million died ( there was a mortality rate of more than 90%), including entire tribal communities these exchanges, biological, and cultural, would permanently change the entire world.

one of the largest settlements in the midwest was

Cahoia ( near East St.Louis, Illinois), with as many as 30,000 inhabitants

Samuel de Champlain strong leadership won him the nickname

"father of new france"

until the late 1400s, Americans and the people of Europe, Africa, and Asia had no knowledge of the people on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean.

-Columbus's voyages of exploration finally brought people into contact across the Atlantic. -while vikings from Scandinavia had visited Greenland and North America around the year 1000, these voyages had no lasting impact.

Spanish dominance in the Americas was based on more than a papal ruling and a treaty. Spain owed its expanding power to its explorers and conquerors called conquistadores.

-Feats such as the journey across the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean by Vasco Nunez de Balboa, the circumnavigation of the world by one of Ferdinand Magellan's ship, - the conquest of the Aztecs in Mexico by Hernan Cortes, and the conquest of the Incas in Peru by Francisco Pizarro secured Spain's initial supremacy in the Americas

the native population was concentrated in 3 highly developed civilizations

-Mayas in the rain forests of the Yucatan Peninsula ( Guatemala, Belize, and southern mexico) -Aztecs - capital Tenochtitlan -Incas : Peru

columbus spent 8 years seeking financial support for his plan to sail west from Europe to the "Indies." -Finally, in 1492 he succeeded in winning the backing of Isabella and Ferdinand

-at the time the 2 spanish monarchs were then at the height of their power because they had just defeated the Moors in Granada. -they agreed to outfit 3 ships and to make Columbus governor, admiral, and viceroy of all the lands that he would claim for spain.

even though many scoff at Columbus, most historians agree on Columbus's importance.

-great skills as a navigator and his commitment in gothing somewhere where no one has ever dated to go. -Columbus's voyages brought, for the first time in history, permanent interaction between people from all over the globe. He changed the world forever

In Europe, a rebirth of classical learning prompted an outburst of artistic and scientific activity in the 15th and 16th centuries known as the Renaissance. =several of the technological advances during the Renaissance resulted from Europeans making improvements in the inventions of others examples:

-gunpowder ( invented by Chinese) -sailing compass ( adopted from Arab merchants who learned about it from the chinese) -major improvements in shipbuilding and mapmaking -invention of printing press in 1450s helped spread of knowledge across Europe

other explorers extended french claims across a vast territory.

-in 1673, Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette explored the upper mississippi river -in 1682, Robert de La Salle explored the Mississippi asin, which he named Louisiana ( after french king, louis XIV)

europe was also changing politically in the 15th century.

-small kingdoms, such as Castile and Aragon, were uniting into larger ones -enormous multi ethnic empires, such as the sprawling Holy Roman Empire in central Europe, were breaking up.

Spanish exploration: the conquistadors sent ships loaded with gold and silver back to Spain from mexico and Peru

-they increased the gold supply by more than 500 percent, making spain the richest and most powerful nation in Europe. -Spain's success encouraged other nations to turn to the Americas in search of gold and power

the original discovery, exploration, and settlement of North and South America occured at least ______ years before Christopher Columbus was born.

10,000 -some archeologists estimate that the first people settled in North America 40,000 years ago.

the cultures of American Indians were very diverse. -while English, Spanish, and almost all other European languages were part of just one language family (Indo European)....

American INdian languages constitute more than 20 language families -among largest were Algonquian in North east, Siouan on Great Plains, and Athabaskan in Southwest -these 20 families included more than 400 distinct languages

unlike the spanish, the english settled in areas without large native empires that could be controlled as a workforce -at least in massachusetts, the english and the american indians coexisted traded, and shared ideas.

American indians taught the settlers how to grow new crops such as corn/maize and showed them how to hunt in the forests -they traded various furs for english manufactured goods, including iron tools and weapons.

several centuries after the decline of the Mayas, the _______ from central Mexico developed a powerful empire.

Aztecs

The French monarchy first sowed interest in exploration in 1524 when it sponsored a voyage by an Italian navigator, Giovanni de Verrazano..

Hoping to find a northwest passage leading through the Americas to Asia, Verrazano explored part of North America's eastern coast, including the new York harbor -french claims to American territory were also based on the voyages of Jacques Cartier, who explored the St. Lawrence River extensively

while the aztecs were dominating mexico and central america, the -_____ based in Peru developed a vast empire in south america

Incas

new mexic0 ( spanish settlements in north america) : santa fe was established as the capital of new mico in 1610. -harsh efforts to Christianize the American INdians caused the

Pueblo people to revolt in 1680. -the spanish were driven from the area until 1692

The first permanent french settlement in america was established by samuel de champlain in 1608 at

Quebec, a village on the st. lawrence river.

In Europe, a rebirth of classical learning prompted an outburst of artistic and scientific activity in the 15th and 16th centuries known as the

Renaissance

England, however, did not follow up Cabot's discoveries with other expeditions of exploration and settlement -other issues preoccupied England's monarchy in the 1500s, including Henry VIII's break with the Roman Catholic Church -in the 1570s and 1580s, under Queen Elizabeth 1, England challenged Spanish shipping in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans

Sir Francis Drake, for example, attacked SPanish ships, seized the gold and silver that they carried, and even attacked SPanish settlements on the coast of Peru -Sir Walter Raleigh attempted to establish a settlement at Roanoke Island off the North Carolina coast in 1587, but the venture failed.

Great Plains: not until the 17th did American INdians acquire horses by trading or stealing them from ______

Spanish settlers

Florida: after a number of failed attempts and against the strong resistance of american indians in the region, the spanish established a permanent settlement at

St. Augustine in 1565 -today, st.augustine is the oldest city in north america founded by europeans

Midwest Settlements: east of the mississippi river, the woodland american indians prospered with a rich food supply

Supported by hunting, fishing, and agriculture, many permanent settlements developed in the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys and elsewhere

The Aztec capital, _______ had a population of about 200,000, equivalent in population to the largest cities of Europe.

Tenochtitlán

Spain and Portugal were the first European kingdoms to claim territories in the Americans. -their claims overlapped, leading to disputes

The catholic monarchs of the 2 countries turned to the pope in Rome to resolve their differences. -in 1493, the pope drew a vertical, north-south line on a world map, called the line of demarcation. -the pope granted Spain all lands to the west of the line and portugal all lands to the east

Northeast Settlements: some descendents of the Adena -Hopewell culture spread from the ohio valley into nEw york. -among the most famous groups of American Indians in this was region was the Iroquois Confederation, which was

a political union of 5 independent tribes who lived in the mohawk Valley of New York.

california: in response to russian exploration from alaska, the spanish established permanet settlements at san diego in 1769 and san francisco in 1776 -by 1784, `

a series of missions or settlements had been established along the california coast by members of the Franciscan order -Father Junipero Serra founded 9 of these missions

The contrast of the Americas and the Europeans resulted in the Columbian Exchange,

a transfer of plants, animals, and germs from one side of the Atlantic to the other for the first time.

The contrast of the Americas and the Europeans resulted in the Columbian Exchange. -europeans learned

about new plants and foods, including beans, corn, sweet and white potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco. -they also contracted a new disease, syphilis.

as Europeans' diseases and brutality reduced the native population, the spanish brought enslaved people from west africa under the

asiento system. -this required the spanish to pay a tax to their king on each slave they imported to the Americas.

along the pacific coast ( alaska to northern california) , people lived in permanent longhouses or plank houses -the high mountain ranges in this region isolated tribes from one anothers, creating

barriers to development

Northeast Settlements: some descendents of the Adena -Hopewell culture spread from the ohio valley into nEw york. -among the most famous groups of American Indians in this was region was the Iroquois Confederation. -from the 16th century through the American Revolution, the Iroquois were a powerful force

battling rival American Indians as well as Europeans

what conditions in Europe shaped the ambitions of the Italian-born Christopher Columbus?

changing economic, political, and social conditions

England's earliest claims to territory in the Americas rested on the voyages of John Cabot, an italian sea captain who sailed under contract to England's King Henry VII. -cabot explored the

coast of NEwfoundland in 1497

Like the English, the French were slow to develop colonies across the Atlantic. -during the 1500s, the french monarchy was preoccupied with

european wars as well as with internal religious conflict between roman catholics and french protestants known as Huguenots. -only in the next century did france develop a strong interest in following up its claims to north american land

the region that now includes New Mexico and Arizona, groups such as the Hokokam, Anasazi, and Pueblos evolved multifaceted societies supported by farming and multistoried buildings -by the time Europeans arrived, what happened

extreme drought and other hostile natives had taken their toll on these groups -but much of their way of life preserved in the arid land and ther stone and masonry dwellings

the region that now includes New Mexico and Arizona, groups such as the Hokokam, Anasazi, and Pueblos evolved multifaceted societies supported by

farming with irrigation systems -in big numbers they lived in caves, under caves, and in multistoried buildings.

today, some people scoff at columbus for having

for having erroneously giving the people he encountered the name "Indians." -even the land that he had explored was named for someone else, Amerigo Vespucci, another Italian sailer. -COlumbus's critics also point out the many problems and injustices suffered by the natives of the Americas after Europeans arrived and took over their land

Huegnots

french protestants

By the time of columbus, most people in the americas in what is now the United states and canada lived in sempipermanet settlements in group seldom exceeding 300 people -gender roles were woman?

gathered plants and nuts or grow crops such as corn/maize, beans, and tobacco.

one european who differed from the views of most europeans toward native americans was a spanish priest named Bartolome de las casas -though he owned land and slaves in west indies and had fought in wars against the indians, he eventually become an advocate for better treatment for indians

he persuaded the king to institute the new laws of 1542 -these laws cened indian slavery, halted forced indian labor, and began to end the encomienda system which kept the indians in serfdom. -conversative spanishards, eager to keep the encomienda system, responded and successfully pushed the king to repeal parts of the New Laws.

after sailing from the Canary Islands on September 6, Columbus landed on an island in the Bahamas on October 12

his success in reaching lands on the other side of the ocean brought him a burst of glory in spain -but 3 subsequent voyages across the atlantic were disappointing - but found little gold, few spices, and no simple path to china and india

Northeast Settlements: some descendents of the Adena -Hopewell culture spread from the ohio valley into nEw york. -their culture combined

hunting and farming

Great Plains: the nomadic tribes survived on

hunting, principally the buffalo, which supplied their food as well as decorations, crafting tools, knives and clothing

economic motives for exploration grew out of a fierce competition among European kingdoms for

increased trade with Africa, India, and China

spanish settlements developed slowly in North America, as a result of

limited mineral resources and strong opposition from American Indians

Spain and Portugal were the first European kingdoms to claim territories in the Americans. -their claims overlapped, leading to disputes.he catholic monarchs of the 2 countries turned to the pope in Rome to resolve their differences. -in 1493, the pope drew a vertical, north-south line on a world map, called the

line of demarcation. -the pope granted spain all lands to the west of the line and portugal all lands to the east

By the time of columbus, most people in the americas in what is now the United states and canada lived in sempipermanet settlements in group seldom exceeding 300 people -gender roles were men?

made tools and hunted for game

the spanish who settled in mexico and peru encountered the highly organized aztec and inca empires -even after diseases killed most natives, millions remained in these empires that the spanish could incorporate as laborers in their own empire

many natives who did not die from disease died from forced labor. =because few families came from spain to settle the empire, the explorers and soldiers intermarried with natives as well with africans -africans were forced to travel across ocean to provide slave labor for the spanish colonies -a rigid class system developed in the spanish colonies, one domained by pure blooded spaniards .

Columbus died in 1506, still believing that he had found a western route to Asia. -however,

many spaniards viewed Columbus as a failure because they suspected that he had found not a valuable trade route, but a "New World."

Atlantic Seaboard Settlements: in the area from NEw Jersey south to Florida lived the people of the Coastal Plains

many were descendants of the Woodland mound builders and built timber and bark lodging along rivers -the rivers and the Atlantic OCean provided a rich source of food

what was the population in the region north of Mexico ( United states and Canada) in the 1490s

may have been anywhere under 1 million-to more than 10 million

some archeologists estimate that the first people settled in North America 40,000 years ago.

migrants from Asia may have crossed a land bridge that once connected siberia and alaska -over time people migrated southward from near the arctic circle to the southern tip of south america

Great Plains: the plains tribes would at times merge or split apart as conditions changed

migration also was common -the Apaches gradually migrated southward from canada to texas

Great Plains: With horses, tribes such as the Lakota Sioux

moved away from farming to hunting and easily following the buffalo across the plains

dutch expeditions ( henry hudson) established dutch claims to surrounding area that would become

new amsterdam and later new york

most people who lived on the great plains were either

nomadic hunters or sedentary people

native societies in the region north of mexico ( north america/US and Canada) were smaller and less sophisticated than those in mexico and south america because

of how slowly the cultivation of corn/maize spread northward from mexico ( basic answer : food cultivation was slower)

compared to the spaniards and the english, the french maintained good relations with the tribes they encountered.

seeking to control the fur trade, the french built trading posts throughout the st.lawrence valley, the great lakes region, and along the mississippi river -at these ports, they exchanged french goods for beaver pelts and other furs collected by american indians -because the french had few colonists, farms, or towns, they posed less threat to the native population than did other europeans -also, french soldiers assisted the Huron people in fighting their traditional enemy, the Iroquois.

Great Plains: The nomadic tribes lived in

teppes, frames of poles covered in amerial skins, which were easily disassembled and transported

the debate over the role of indians in the spanish colonies came to a head in a formal debate in 1550-1551 in Valladolid, SPain. -Bartolome de Las Casas argued

that the indians were completely human and morally equal to europeans, so enslaving them was not justified

Northeast Settlements: some descendents of the Adena -Hopewell culture spread from the ohio valley into nEw york. -among the most famous groups of American Indians in this was region was the Iroquois Confederation, -the five tribes were

the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk. -Multiple families related through a mother lived in longhouses, up to 200 feet long

The Dutch government granted a privacy company

the dutch west india company, the right to control the region for economic gain

unlike the spanish, the english settled in areas without large native empires that could be controlled as a workforce at least in massachusetts, the english and the american indians coexisted traded, and shared ideas. -but peaceful relations soon gave way to conflict and open warfare

the english had no respect for american indian cultures, which they viewed as primitive or savage. -American Indians saw their way of life threatened as the english began to take more land to support their ever-increasing population -the english occupied the land and forced the small, scattered tribes they encountered to move away from the coast to inland terrorists -they expelled the natives rather than subjugating/controlling them

Most europeans looked down upon Native Americans

the europeans who colonized north and south america generally viewed Native Americans as inferior people who could be exploited for economic gain, converted to christianity, and used as military allies -europeans used various approaches for controlling native americans and operating their colonies

Midwest Settlements: The Adena-Hopewell culture, centered in what is now ohio, is famous for

the large earthen mounds it created, some as large as 300 feet long.

The later years of the Renaissance were a time of intense religious zeal and conflict

the roman catholic church that had once dominated western europe was threatened from without by Ottoman Turks who were followers of Islam and from within by a revolt against the pope's authority.

two of the largest of these kingdoms united when Isabella, queen of castile, and Ferdinand, king of Argon, married in 1469 -in 1492, under the leadership of Isabella and Ferdinand, the Spanish conquered the last Moorish stronghold in Spain, the city of Granada. in that year, the monarchs also funded Christopher Columbus on his historic first voyage.

the uniting of Spain under Isabella and Ferdinand, the conquest of Granada, and the launching of Columbus signaled new leadership, hope, and power for Europeans who followed the Roman Catholic faith

Northeast Settlements: some descendents of the Adena -Hopewell culture spread from the ohio valley into nEw york. -why did the people have to move to fresh land frequently?

their farming techniques exhausted the soil quickly

Texas: the spanish established settlements in texas

these communities grew in the early 1700s as spain attempted to ressit french efforts to explore the lower mississippi river .

along the pacific coast ( alaska to northern california) , people lived in permanent longhouses or plank houses -to save stories, legends, and myths,

they carved large totem poles

along the pacific coast ( alaska to northern california) , people lived in permanent longhouses or plank houses -diet

they had a rich died based on hunting, fishing, and gathering nuts, berries, and roots

since ancient times people in europe, Africa, and Asia had enslaved people captured in wars -in the 15th century, the portuguese began trading for slaves from west africa

they used the slaves to work newly established sugar plantations on the Madeira and azores islands off the african coast. -producing sugar with slave labor was so profitable that when europeans later established colonies in the americas, they used the slave system there.

economic motives for exploration grew out of a fierce competition among European kingdoms for increased trade with Africa, India, and China -in the past, merchants had traveled from the Italian City state of Venice and the byzantine city of constantinople on a long, slow, expensive overland route that reached all the way to the capital of the Chinese empire

this land route to Asia had become blocked in 1453 when the ottoman turks seized control of constantinople.

enslaved africans resisted slavery in whatever ways they could.

though transported thousands of miles from their homelands and brutally repressed, they often ran away, sabotaged work, or revolted. - and for generations they maintained aspects of their african culture, particularly in music, religion, and folkways,.

the debate over the role of indians in the spanish colonies came to a head in a formal debate in 1550-1551 in Valladolid, SPain. Bartolome de Las Casas - for indians. Juan Gines de sepulveda - against the indian -neither side clearly won the debate

through las clases was unable to gain equal treatment for native americans, he established the basic arguments on behalf of justice for indians

in the early 1500s, certain Christians in Germany, England, France, Holland, and other northern European countries revolted against the authority of the pope. -conflict between catholics and protestants led to a series of religious wars. -the conflict also caused the catholics of Spain and Portugal and the Protestants of England and Holland ...

to want to spread their own versions of Christianity to people in Africa, Asia, and the Americas -thus a religious motive for exploration and colonization was added to political and economic motives.

europe was also changing politically in the 15th century. -the monarchs of the emerging nation states, such as Isabella and Ferdinand of SPain; Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal; and simular monarchs of France, england, and the netherlands; depended on

trade to bring in needed revenues and on the church to justify their right to rule -they used their power to search for riches abroad and to spread the influence of their version of christianity to new overseas dominions.

in 1494, Spain and Portugal moved the pope's line a few degrees to the west and signed an agreement called the

treaty of tordesillas -the line passed thorugh what is now BRazil. =this treaty, together with POrtuguese explorations, established Portugal's claim to BRazil. -SPain claimed the rest of the Americas. =However, other european countries soon challenged these claims

in the 8th century, Islamic invaders from North Africa, known as Moors rapidly conquered most of what is now Spain. -over the next several centuries, Spanish christians reconquered must of the lad and set up several independent kingdoms.

two of the largest of these kingdoms united when Isabella, queen of castile, and Ferdinand, king of Argon, married in 1469 -in 1492, under the leadership of Isabella and Ferdinand, the Spanish conquered the last Moorish stronghold in Spain, the city of Granada.

North American tribes saw themselves as groups distinct from each other, not as part of a larger body of native americans -initially the european goods such as copper pots and guns had motivated the natives to interact with the strangers -after the decimation of their people from the violence and disease of the europeans, the native americans had to adopt new ways to survive

upon observing the europeans fighting each other, some tribes allied themselves with one european power or another in hopes of gaining support in order to survive -a number of tribes simply migrated to new land to get away from the slowly encroaching settlers. -regardless of how they dealt with the european invasion, native americans would never be able to return to the life they had know prior to 1492.

The first Americans adapted to the varied environments of the regions that they found. They evolved into hundreds of tribes, spoke different languages, and practiced different cultures. -what is the estimated native population in the americas in the 1490s,

varies from 50-100 million

due to ottoman turks took over constantinople, the challenge to finding a new way to the rich Asian trade appeared to be by sailing either south along the west african coast east to china, or sailing west across the atlantic ocean. -the portuguese, who realized the route south and east was the shortest path, thought this option seemed more promising.

voyages of exploration sponsored by Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator eventually succeeded in opening up a long sea route around South Africa's Cape of Good Hope.

after seizing the wealth of the Indian empires, the spanish instituted an encomienda system,

with the king of SPain giving grants of land and natives to individual Spaniards. -these Indians had to farm or work in the mines. -the fruits of their labors went to their spanish masters, who in turn had to "care" for them/