Chapter 1: The Evolution of Psychology

attitude change, group behavior

Social

child, adolescent, and adult development

Developmental

Theme 7 indicates that our experience is subjective. What does this mean?

Different people experience different things. Even if we experience the same things, we don't "see" the same things.

Involves work on curriculum design and achievement testing in school settings.

Education and school

Theme 6 reflects to the influence of heredity and environment. What is the consensus among psychologists about the effect of heredity and environment in behavior?

Heredity and environment jointly affect behavior.

The theoretical orientation asserting that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior.

behaviorism

While neither structuralism nor functionalism survived the viable theories of psychology, functionalism had a more lasting impact. The emphasis of functionalism on the practical (or the adaptive or purposeful) led to the development of these two areas of modern psychology: ______ and ______ psychology.

behaviorism, applied

If you ask most college graduates to name the founder of psychology, they would not not say Wilhelm Wundt. Yet among psychologists Wundt is generally acknowledged to be the "_____________" of our field.

founder

Wundt's major contribution to the evolution of psychology may be summarized as follows: He is the _____ of psychology as an independent academic field, and he insisted that psychology can and must use the ____ method.

founder, scientific

Skinner asserted that because behavior is under the lawful control of external events, our feeling of _____ is an illusion.

free will

While Freud and Skinner stressed the way in which behavior is determined, Rogers and Maslow emphasized human beings' ______ to determine their own actions.

freedom

Concerned with the purpose of consciousness.

functionalism

Focused on the adaptive value of consciousness.

functionalism

Interested in the flow of consciousness.

functionalism

School of thought asserting that psychology's major purpose was to investigate the function or purpose of consciousness.

functionalism

Rather than breaking down consciousness into basic elements, the ____ school emphasized determining the ____ our purpose of consciousness.

functionalist, function

The situation had begun to change in recent years for two primary reasons: (1) increased communication and trade worldwide, the so-called _____ economy or global interdependence; and (2) increased diversity of ethnic groups within the countries of the Western World, including the _______ mosaic characteristic of the United States.

global; multicultural

Rogers and Maslow also asserted that human beings have a drive to express their inner potential, a drive toward personal _______.

growth

The branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders.

clinical psychology

Mental processes or thinking.

cognition

As defined by the structuralist, what was the subject matter of psychology?

consciousness

The subject matter of Wundt's psychology was (consciousness/behavior).

consciousness

The basic elements of consciousness were thought to be the sensations that people reported when they observed something. Subjects were first trained to observe something and then report on their conscious experience. The subject matter of structuralism was ______, and it's method involved training observed in the technique of ________.

consciousness, introspection

The use of cognitive skills and strategies to increase the probability of a desirable outcome.

critical thinking

Among the multiple causes of human behavior is the category of causes referred to as culture. Cultural factors include the customs, beliefs, and values that we transmit across generations—what we eat, how we walk, what we wear, what we say, what we think, and so on. Theme 5 indicates that our behavior is shaped by our _____ heritage.

cultural

Widely shared customs, beliefs, values, norms, and institutions that are transmitted socially across generations.

culture

Wundt established the first experimental psychology __________, in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. He also established the first ___________ devotes to publishing psychological research.

laboratory, journal

Wundt had many important students, among them G. Stanley Hall, an American. Hall established the first American psychological _____ at John Hopkins and the first _____ devoted to publishing psychological research.

laboratory, journal

Psychiatrists have ____ degrees. Clinical psychologists generally have ____ degrees.

medical, Ph.D.

The major portion of psychiatrists' training occurs in ____ schools and in the residency programs in psychiatry that follow medical school. Clinical psychologists' training occurs in ____ schools.

medical, graduate

Perhaps the greatest contribution of the humanists movement has been in producing (scientific findings/new approaches) in psychotherapy.

new approaches

Psychology was founded in a University, and earlier in this century almost all psychologists were employed as academics. Today, however, more than two-thirds of psychologists are employed in (university/non-academic) settings that include hospitals, business and industry, schools, and government agencies.

non-academic

Watson believed that psychology could not be a science unless it, like the other sciences, concentrated on ______ rather than unobservable events.

observable

passing the salt

observable

saying "Please pass the salt"

observable

walking rapidly

observable

writing a letter

observable

Other applied areas followed, including the fields of industrial, counseling, and school psychology. The growth of applied psychology within the APA caused a rift that resulted in the birth of a new organization devoted exclusively to (research/application) in psychology. This organization founded in 1988, is the American Psychological Society or ______.

research, APS

Freud's ideas were considered quite controversial. The general public tended to find Freud's ideas unacceptable because of his emphasis on ______. Scientific psychologists, with an emphasis on observable events, rejected Freud's notion that we are controlled by ______ forces. Nonetheless, Freud's theory gradually gained prominence and survives today as an influential theoretical perspective.

sex, unconscious

My daughter's comment caused me to think about one other aspect of empiricism: she expressed doubt. One can describe belief systems along a continuum from credulity, which means ready to believe, to skepticism, which means disposed toward doubt. Psychology, and the empirical approach, is more disposed toward the ____ end of the continuum.

skepticism

Although generally not accessible to us, the unconscious is revealed in several ways, according to Freud. He thought that the unconscious is revealed in mistakes, such as "_____ of the tongue," or the symbolism in ______ that occur during sleep.

slips, dreams

As is the case with science in general, psychology does not evolve in a vacuum. It is influence by and influences our society. For example, the current interest in cultural diversity has prompted increased interest in cross-cultural research, which in turn affects the viewpoints in our society. As stated in Theme 3, psychology evolves in a ____ context.

sociohistorical

A literal translation of the root words of psychology suggests that psychology is the study of the _____. For both Wundt and James, this was the case: they studied human ______. For Watson, however, the subject matter of psychology was ______.

soul, consciousness, behavior

Some psychologists worry that the study of diverse groups may inadvertently foster _____, especially of groups that have historically been the objects of prejudice.

stereotypes

Assumed that consciousness could be broken down into basic elements.

structuralism

Emphasized sensation and perception in vision, hearing, and touch.

structuralism

School of thought based on notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements.

structuralism

Trained observers to introspect about consciousness.

structuralism

Edward Titchener developed the school of psychology known as ____. The major rennet of this viewpoint was that psychology should follow the model of the physical sciences-by breaking phenomena into basic _____.

structuralism, elements

According to evolutionary psychologists, human behavior—including not only aggression and mate selection but perception, language, personality, and cognition—are strongly influenced by the ____ value that these factors have had for the human species.

survival

The viewpoint has its critics. Some charge that evolutionary conceptions are simply post hoc accounts rather than explanations and that the theory is not subject to scientific _____. Nonetheless, the viewpoint has gained a Hugh degree of acceptance and is clearly a major new perspective in contemporary psychology.

test

experiencing hunger

unobservable

feeling angry

unobservable

perceiving a round object

unobservable

Psychology is a thriving field that has experienced a remarkable growth since its founding in 1879. Nationwide it is the second most popular undergraduate major, and about ____% of doctoral degrees in the sciences and humanities are in psychology.

9

In 1892, with 26 of his colleagues, Hall began the American Psychological Association, known by the initials ______. Hall also became the first _____ of the Association.

APA, president

The scientific method relies on observation, but observation by itself isn't sufficient. Why isn't it?

Because people's experience of the world is highly subjective.

Treatment of psychological disorders, behavioral and emotional problems.

Clinical

memory, decision making, thinking

Cognitive

Treatment of less severe problems and problems involving family, marital, and career difficulties.

Counseling

"core" topics (e.g., perception, conditioning, motivation)

Experimental

Psychology applied to business settings; deals with personnel, job satisfaction, etc.

Industrial and organizational

personality assessment, personality description

Personality

influence of the brain, bodily chemicals, genetics

Physiological

personality and intelligence assessment, test design, new statistical procedures

Psychometrics

While structuralists and behavioralists differed in their views of the subject matter of psychology, their approach to the new field was similar in one major respect. In what way we're the two systems similar?

They studied "parts" rather than "wholes."

Clinical psychologists were relatively rare in a field devoted primarily to research. One of the historical events that changed the picture was the advent of _____. With the increased need for screening recruits and treating emotional casualties, the Veterans Administration began funding many new training programs in the field of _____ psychology.

World War II, clinical

For behaviorists, what was the subject matter of psychology?

animal or human behavior

Watson also made a shift away from human introspection by using _____ as the subjects for research. Why the change? First, animal behavior is observable; human consciousness is not. Second, the environment of laboratory animals, in contrast to that of humans, is subject to much more _______.

animals, manipulation

The branch of psychology concerned with practical problems.

applied psychology

An observable activity or response by an organism.

behavior

Studying other cultures is expensive and time consuming. It's much _____ for researchers to study people in their own country.

cheaper

We would ordinarily think that if one theory is correct, any other theory used to explain the same data must be wrong. While scientists do pit theories against each other, it is also the case that apparently contradictory theories may both be correct—as with the explanation of light in terms of both wave and particle theories. Thus, Theme 2 indicates that psychology is theoretically _____.

diverse

When my older daughter Samantha was about three years old, she pulled a sugar bowl off a shelf and broke it while I was not present. Later, when I surveyed the damage, I said, "I see you've broken something." She said, "How do yer know, did yer see me do it?" I was amused, because while it was obvious who had broken it, her comment reflected psychology's foundation in direct observation. Theme 1 is that psychology is ____. Empiricism is the point of view that knowledge should be acquired through _____.

empirical, observation

Watson largely discounted the importance of genetic inheritance. For Watson, behavior was governed by the _____.

environment

The tendency to view one's own group as superior to other groups.

ethnocentrism

There may be a tendency among Western psychologists to view their own group as superior, the group tendency referred to as ______.

ethnocentrism

Examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive or survival value for a species.

evolutionary psychology

For example, I have observed that many American students traveling abroad initially think that their European lecturers talk down to them; the lecturers, in turn, may regard our students as spoiled and insolent. Perhaps closer to the truth is that there is a clash of customs invisible to both cultures. While we are shaped by our cultural _____ we are often ______ (aware/unaware) of the precise rules and customs that affect us.

heritage, unaware

The psychological theory asserting that human beings are unique and fundamentally different from other animals.

humanism

The ideas of the ____ psychologists, which include the writings of Rogers and Maslow, emphasize the extent to which human beings are (similar to/different from) the other animals.

humanistic, different from

Observation of one's own conscious experience.

introspection

Think about sucking on a lemon. When you do, the amount of saliva in your mouth will increase measurably. While it would be enough to describe your observable response as a function of my observable instruction, it is also obvious that thinking, or cognition, is involved: My instruction changed your ______ image. Thus, psychologists have returned to an interest in thinking or cognition, especially with regard to research on imagery, problem solving, and decision making.

mental

While he did not delay their existence, Skinner said that (mental/environmental) events are not observable and cannot be studied scientifically.

mental

While Darwin's influence is clear in other psychological theories, the new emphasis on natural selection is (less/more) comprehensive and widely researched than the earlier versions.

more

Psychology tolerates different theoretical explanations because:

more than one theory may be correct

What influences the course of a ball rolled down an inclined plane? Gravity. And also friction. And the presence of other objects, and a number of other factors. That is the point of Theme 4: even more than is the case for physical events, behavior is determined by ______.

multiple causes

The Darwinian principle that characteristics that have a survival advantage for a species are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations.

natural selection

When looking for an explanation of a particular behavior, someone might ask: "Well, why did he do it? Was it greed or ignorance?" The question implies the very human tendency to reason in terms of (one cause/multiple causes) for each event.

one cause

The second recent trend involves a different kind of "internal" process and includes research on electrical stimulation of the brain, brain specialization, and visual signals. These are ______ processes. Thus, the two recent trends in research in psychology involve the reemergence of the fields of ____ psychology and ____ psychology.

physiological, cognitive, physiological

A reaction against a negative emphasis in psychology; a new focus on positive, adaptive, and creative aspects of human existence.

positive psychology

Applied psychology is the part of psychology that is concerned with (research issues/practical problems). Prominent among the applied areas of psychology is the field of ____ psychology,which deals with the treatment of psychological disorders.

practical problems, clinical

While clinical psychologists and psychiatrists frequently use the same psychotherapeutic treatment procedures, ____ is a branch of medicine. Psychology generally takes a nonmedical approach to treatment.

psychiatry

Freudian theory that explains personality and abnormal behavior in terms of unconscious processes.

psychoanalytic theory

The origins of functionalism are associated with William James. Influenced by the Darwin's concept of natural selection, James concluded that psychology should study the basic (elements/purpose) of consciousness.

purpose

The fundamental principle of behavior, according to Skinner, is that organisms will tend to _____ behaviors that lead to positive outcome.

repeat

According to Skinner, to adequately account for and predict behavior psychologists must understand

the way environmental factors affect behavior

According to psychoanalytic theory, that portion of the mind containing thoughts, memories, and wishes not in awareness but nonetheless exerting a strong effect on human behavior.

unconscious

There is a word beginning with s that means the same thing as feces. This word may be more likely to cause laughter embarrassment or anger than the word feces. Why do two words that mean the same thing produce such differing reactions? For Freud, such irrationalities in language and other aspects of human behavior reflect the influence of ___.

unconscious

For Wundt, the subject matter of psychology was human consciousness. For Freud, the major subject matter was what he termed the _____. With this concept, Freud asserted that human beings are (aware/unaware) of most of the factors that influence their thoughts and behavior.

unconscious, unaware