Chapter 1: What is Psychology?

The major proponent(s) of Functionalism

William James

Social-cognitive theory

a school of psychology in the behaviorist tradition that includes cognitive factors in the explanation and prediction of behavior; formerly termed social learning theory

Naturalistic observation

a scientific method in which organisms are observed in their natural environments

Aristotle

an ancient contributor to the modern field of psychology who argued that human behavior, like the movements of the stars and the seas, is subject to rules and laws. Today, as then, the subject matter of the study of human behavior includes the study of personality, sensation and perception, thought, intelligence, needs and motives, feelings and emotion, and memory.

Correlation

an association or relationship among variables, as we might find between height and weight, or between study habits and school grades

Neoanalysts with a _____________ focus less on the unconscious—as was done in Freud's day—and more on conscious choice and self-direction.

psychodynamic perspective

Sample

part of a population

Critical thinking

a way of evaluating the claims and comments of other people that involves skepticism and examination of evidence

Counseling psychologists

typically see clients with adjustment problems but not serious psychological disorders

Functionalism

the school of psychology that emphasizes the uses or functions of the mind rather than the elements of experience

survey

a method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people answer questions about their attitudes or behavior

Experimental psychologists

specialize in basic processes such as the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, thought, motivation, and emotion

Sociocultural perspective

the view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in behavior and mental processes

Why must psychologists have ethical standards?

Psychologists must adhere to a number of ethical standards that are intended to promote individual dignity, human welfare, and scientific integrity. The standards are also intended to ensure that psychologists do not engage in harmful research methods or treatments.

The major proponent(s) of Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, and Erik Erikson

Experiment

a scientific method that seeks to confirm cause-and-effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables

Control groups

in experiments, groups whose members do not obtain the treatment, while other conditions are held constant

Stratified sample

a sample drawn so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionately in the sample

Double-blind study

a study in which neither the subjects nor the observers know who has received the treatment

Biological perspective

the approach to psychology that seeks to understand the nature of the links between biological processes and structures such as the functioning of the brain, the endocrine system, and heredity, on the one hand, and behavior and mental processes, on the other

Random sample

a sample drawn so that each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected to participate

Structuralism

the school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements—sensations, feelings, and images—that combine to form experience

Theory

a set of hypothesized statements about the relationships among events

Volunteer bias

a source of bias or error in research reflecting the prospect that people who offer to participate in research studies differ systematically from people who do not

Placebo

a bogus treatment that has the appearance of being genuine

Reinforcement

a stimulus that follows a response and increases the frequency of the response

Blind

in experimental terminology, unaware of whether or not one has received a treatment

Debrief

to explain the purposes and methods of a completed procedure to a participant

Forensic psychologists

apply principles of psychology to the criminal justice system

The major proponent(s) of Gestalt Psychology

Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler

Informed consent

a participant's agreement to participate in research after receiving information about the purposes of the study and the nature of the treatments

Psychologists with a _____________ seek to understand the relationships between the brain, hormones, heredity, and evolution, on the one hand, and behavior and mental processes, on the other.

biological perspective

Psychologists with a _____________ investigate how we perceive and mentally represent the world by learning, memory, planning, problem solving, decision making, and language.

cognitive perspective

Applied research

research conducted in an effort to find solutions to particular problems

Educational psychologists

research theoretical issues related to learning, measurement, and child development

A psychologist with a _____________ studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes.

sociocultural perspective

Gender

the culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity

Define psychology.

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The goal of the psychologist, like other scientists, is to describe, explain, predict, and control the events he or she studies—in this case, behavior and mental processes.

The major proponent(s) of Structuralism

Wilhelm Wundt

Case study

a carefully drawn biography that may be obtained through interviews, questionnaires, and psychological tests

Population

a complete group of interest to researchers, from which a sample is drawn

Independent variable

a condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so that its effects may be observed

Correlational method

a mathematical method of determining whether one variable increases or decreases as another variable increases or decreases

Dependent variable

a measure of an assumed effect of an independent variable

Cognitive

having to do with mental processes such as sensation and perception, memory, intelligence, language, thought, and problem solving

The major proponent(s) of Behaviorism

John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner

Correlation coefficient

a number between +1.00 and −1.00 that expresses the strength and direction (positive or negative) of the relationship between two variables

Introspection

deliberate looking into one's own cognitive processes to examine one's thoughts and feelings

Sport psychologists

help people improve their performance in sports

Experimental groups

in experiments, groups whose members obtain the treatment

Human factors psychologists

make technical systems more user-friendly

Pure research

research conducted without concern for immediate applications

Organizational psychologists

study the behavior of people in organizations such as businesses

Environmental psychologists

study the ways that people and the environment influence one another

Psychology

the science that studies behavior and mental processes

Social psychologists

concerned with the nature and causes of individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situations

The _____________ is cognitive in flavor, yet emphasizes more the role of subjective (personal) experience.

humanistic-existential perspective

Health psychologists

study the effects of stress on health problems such as headaches, cardiovascular disease, and cancer

Behaviorists

(1st of 2 learning perspectives) emphasize environmental influences and the learning of habits through repetition and reinforcement

Scientific method

an organized way of using experience and testing ideas to expand and refine knowledge

Clinical psychologists

help people with psychological disorders adjust to the demands of life

School psychologists

help school systems identify and assist students who have problems that interfere with learning

Personality psychologists

identify and measure human traits and determine influences on human thought processes, feelings, and behavior

Social-cognitive theorists

suggest that people can modify and create their environments, and engage in intentional learning by observing others (2nd of 2 learning perspectives)

Selection factor

a source of bias that may occur in research findings when participants are allowed to choose for themselves a certain treatment in a scientific study

Developmental psychologists

study the changes—physical, cognitive, social, and emotional—that occur throughout the life span

Industrial psychologists

focus on the relationships between people and work

Behaviorism

the school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses

Psychoanalysis

the school of psychology that emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behavior

Explain how psychologists study behavior and mental processes, focusing on critical thinking and research methods.

Psychologists use evidence and critical thinking—the process of thoughtfully analyzing and probing the questions, statements, and arguments of others. The scientific method is a systematic way of organizing and expanding scientific knowledge. Daily experiences, common beliefs, and scientific observations all contribute to the development of theories. Psychological theories explain observations and lead to hypotheses about behavior and mental processes. Observations can then confirm the theory or lead to its refinement or abandonment. Many factors—such as the nature of the research sample—must be considered in interpreting the accuracy of the results of scientific research.

Hypothesis

in psychology, a specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is tested through research

Consumer psychologists

study the behavior of shoppers in an effort to predict and influence their behavior

Gestalt psychology

the school of psychology that emphasizes the tendency to organize perceptions into wholes and to integrate separate stimuli into meaningful patterns