Chapter 10 - Explanative Archaeology

Processual Archaeologist

A systems model or flow chart to explain societal change would be used by a...?

Cognitive-Processual Approach

An alternative to the materialist orientation of the functional-processual approach, it is concerned with... - The integration of the cognitive and symbolic with other aspects of early societies - The role of ideology as an active organizational force. This approach also accepts generalization, & integrates the role of the individual into analysis as an active agent.

Culture Historical Approach

An approach to archaeological interpretation that uses the procedure of the traditional historian; relies on diffusionist & migratory theories; assigned archaeological cultures to past specific peoples, which is problematic as those peoples were defined by the archaeologists themselves.

Gender Archaeology

Archaeological research that draws on insights from contemporary gender studies to investigate how people come to recognize themselves as different from others, how people represent these differences, and how others react to such claims

Material Engagement

Argues that change arises from conscious & often purposeful human activities; many innovations throughout history have both a symbolic and material dimension, which entail what John Searle terms "institutional facts" which are themselves social creations.

Roy Rappaport

Argues the way ritual is used within a society and how it functions, as well as the functioning of symbols, is more important than the meaning given to said symbols by the society being studied.

Describes the Processual Approach

Attempts to isolate different processes within a society; provides general explanations, & focuses on ecological, social, & economic factors; stresses evolutionary theory; incorporates systems theory. Tends NOT to connect archaeological cultures to past specific peoples.

The Conditions of Agricultural Growth (1965)

Book by Ester Boserup, who argued that agricultural intensification goes hand-in-hand with population growth; she points to introduction of technology necessitated by growing populations as evidence. Hierarchy develops, as do centralized state systems. Pop growth -> introduction of -> increase in agricultural new methods production

Timothy Earle & Richard Blanton

Cognitive-processual archaeologists; former's How Chiefs Come to Power (1997) speaks on economic power, military power, & ideology as a source of power, utilizing three widely separated case studies in Denmark, Hawaii, & the Andes. Latter examined power in early states, using full integration of the cognitive dimension into analysis alongside economic issues.

Bruce Trigger

Criticized New (processual) Archaeology for being too constrictive in his book Time and Traditions (1978).

Ian Hodder

Criticized New (processual) Archaeology in its neglect of the individual; argued that material world takes an active role in shaping culture & enabling societies to function, such as currency stimulating work; similar sentiments led to the establishment of Postprocessual Archaeology in 1990s.

Critical Theory

Developed by Frankfurt School of philosophers and social thinkers; stresses illusionary nature of objectivity; view scientific method as supporting of "ideology of control" by which domination is exercised in contemporary society.

Structuralist Archaeology

Developed in 1970s in response to processual functionalists; stressed that ideas, beliefs, & symbols of the past societies guided actions. Associated with Claude Levi-Strauss & Noam Chomsky, among others. Also argued that there are recurrent patterns in human societies throughout history, many of which are polar opposites such as left/right, cooked/raw, hot/cold, dirty/clean, etc.

Main questions of Processual Approach

Development of urbanization; how and why states rise and fall.

Cognitive Archaeology

Emerged in 1980s & 90s; study of ways of thought & structures of belief on the basis of material remains; differs from functional-processual predecessors in that it seeks to incorporate information about symbolic aspects of society; recognizes ideology as an active force w/in societies; that material culture plays an active role in constructing societies; rejection of historical explanation relating entirely to the individual; & that facts cannot be viewed as objective independent of theory, although still maintain that theories must be tested against facts.

Postprocessual Archaeology (Interpretive Archaeology)

Emphasizes specific context, drawing on structuralist or neo-Marxist ideas, stressing the role of individual human agency, and avoiding generalizations; stresses subjectivity and rejects objectivity; has not been adept at explaining classes of events or general processes, since the focus is upon specific conditions & generalization is not accepted.

Monocausal

Explanations which concentrate on one chief variable, although several minor variables can be involved.

Multivariate

Explanations which consider several factors of causation which are systematically integrated.

Evolutionary Archaeology

Explores the notion that processes responsible for biological evolution as set out by Charles Darwin drive cultural change; argues humans arose from natural selection, & that our minds remain adapted to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle; not supported by neurological analysis; major challenge is theory has not yet explained processes more persuasively than other approaches. Is a Processual Approach.

General Explanation

Favored by New Archaeology; seeks to identify regularities & patterns and follow universal natural laws (e.g. X always implies Y, etc.), a flawed view; uses scientific method.

Post-Pleistocene Adaptations (Lewis Binford, 1968)

Hypothesized that once a group becomes sedentary, their population rapidly rises, necessitating greater degrees of food production; argued that groups became sedentary in the first place as a result of rising sea levels after the Pleistocene (Ice Age) displaced hunter-gatherers from coastal plains & gave humans greater access to migratory fish & fowl.

Internal Conflict

Introduced by Igor Diakonoff; a monocausal explanation for development of state societies; argued that states are organizations which impose order on class conflict, which itself arises from stratified wealth; societal differentiation seen as major causative element from which consequences follow.

Hydraulic Hypothesis

Introduced by Karl Wittfogel; a monocausal explanation for the development of state societies; argued that irrigation of alluvial plains of rivers brought about fertility & high yields which led to higher populations, sedentary lifeways, & urbanism, as well as structured leadership in order to organize said systems of irrigation. Applies to Mesopotamian Sumerians and onward; Nile Valley Egypt (both 3000 BCE); Indus Valley (2500 BCE); & Shang China (1500 BCE) & onward.

No

Is there a universally accepted method of understanding the human past?

Population Growth

Monocausal explanation for development of state societies supported by 18th-century English scholar Thomas Malthus, who argued that human population grows based on the limit permitted by the food supply; when the carrying capacity is reached, further population increase leads to food shortage, and thus in turn leads to increased death rates and lower fertility, effectively "capping" a society's population. Pop growth -> food shortage -> increased death rate & lower fertility

DNA testing

Most clear method of tracking ancient migration patterns

Mark Leone

Neo-Marxist archaeologist who excavated 18th-century garden of William Paca to emphasize contradiction b/t slave-owning society & that same society proclaiming independence & political liberty, a contradiction masked in portraying societal power as law in nature.

Environmental Conscription

Offered by Robert Carneiro as a monocausal approach to explain formation of state societies in Peru; stressed constraints opposed by environment & the role of strong leadership in times of war.

Kent Flannery

One of few New Archaeologists to concern himself with symbolic questions; wrote Zapotec Civilization (1996) alongside Joyce Marcus in which symbolic & cognitive questions were integrated with subsistence, economic, & social ones to form a holistic, integrated view of society.

Roman alphabet

Originating in the Levantine coast in the form of Phoenician script, by 1000 BCE adopted by Greeks, then modified in Italy to write Etruscan & Latin, and now provides the alphabet for several languages in Europe & the world. Positive example of diffusionist theory in archaeology, an otherwise rare and outdated method.

New Archaeology (Processual Archaeology)

Otherwise known as processual archaeology; developed in 1960s; involved explicit use of theory & models, & above all generalization; seeks to study processes w/in a society, such as relations b/t societies, society and the environment, subsistence, economy, etc. Criticized for being too functionalist & favoring environmental & economic aspects over social relations. Uses evolutionary theory, law-like formulations, and frames hypotheses & tests deductions against data; scientific method.

Neo-Marxism

Places greater emphasis on the significance of ideology in shaping societal change; places ideology over economy.

Marxist Archaeology

Post-processual approach stressing social relations & power; argues that societal change is caused by contradictions which arise b/t the forces of production & social organization (essentially, class struggle); places economy over ideology. Not best with handling archaeological data.

Interpretive Approaches

Postprocessual approach, agency theory. These stress subjectivity. Processual/New Archaeology is NOT interpretive; rather, it's objective.

Lapita culture

Pottery branch characterized by incised decoration originating in northern New Guinea and found as far west as Samoa & Tonga b/t 1600 & 1000 BCE, indicating migration. Positive example of migratory theory in archaeology, an otherwise rare and outdated method.

Lewis Binford

Published 1968 paper "Post-Pleistocene Adaptations" in which he set out to explain the origins of food production; revolutionary in that it was generalized, explaining the origins of farming worldwide; example of New (processual) Archaeology.

Agency

Role of the individual in promoting change; sometimes assigned to artifacts as well as people; difficult to determine how actions of the individual had a wider & long-term impact.

Specific Explanation

Seeks to know more and more details surrounding an event; assumes that if we establish enough of what led up to and caused an event, the better we'll be able to explain it; sometimes referred to as historical explanation.

Great Zimbabwe

Stone city "discovered" by Cecil Rhodes in 19th century, who used racist diffusionist explanations to hypothesize its creators; later excavations by Gertrude Caton-Thompson in 1920s revealed Africans did indeed build city.

Warfare

Supported by Kent Flannery; a monocausal explanation for development of state societies; argues that violent conflict results in conquest & the formation of larger states. Agency plays a role in regard to military leaders literally changing the course of history (Alexander the Great, etc.)

External Trade

Supported by William Rathje as a monocausal explanation for the development of state societies in the Maya Lowlands; argued that lowland areas lacking basic raw materials were pressured to integrate into highly organized communities to ensure a regular supply of lacking natural material from elsewhere.

A multivariate explanation

The collapse of the Classic Maya period in the textbook is explained by...?

Criticism of Culture History Approach

Theory did not play a big enough role; was unscientific; diffusionist & migratory theories were too simplistic & oftentimes had racial undertones; did not use enough models; too descriptive.

Criticism of Processual Approach

Too functionalist; doesn't put adequate focus upon social relations & individual human agency, instead favoring economic & environmental forces & rejecting the individual; avoidance of using SOME theories, such as multivocality; introduced simplistic universal laws of culture & society; scientific method is too objective.

Diffusion Theory

Traditional explanation of change in which an inherently dominant group influences "lesser" groups through interaction such as trade, war, migration, etc. Processual (New) archaeology challenged this theory.

Culture history vs evolutionary thinking

Two approaches which rarely mesh together

Contemporary focus of archaeological research

Whole field of official symbolism & of religion symbolism within it