CHAPTER 10,11,12

1957

(baldwain) age 79 awarded APA citation for his vital and fruitful work. refused to go inside to receive award, watson afraid that he would show his emotions and cry. son accepted it in his place. burned all of his papers prior to his death

three stages

1913-1930 watsonian 1930-1960 neobehaviorism (core of psychology is the study of learning, most behavior can be accounted for by the laws of conditioning) 1960-present sociobehaviorism and the return to the cognitive processes

instincts watson

1914 watson described 11 instincts

Skinner life cont.

1925: hamilton college ny degree in english no courses in psychology phi beta kappa, worked at writing for two years after favorable feedback from robert frost, depressed by lack of success as a write and in romance, read about pavlovs and watsons experimental work 1931- phd from harvard, 1938- behavior of organisms, covered basic points of his system 1953- science and human behavior basic textbook for his system, toward end of life (lived in a controlled environment, enjoyed writing a source of positive reinforcement, published an article intellectual self-management in old age, described the feelings of dying with leukemia in a radio interview)

aircribs, teaching machines, pigeon-guided missiles

1945: aircrib = brought skinner public notoriety, mechanized environment invented to relieve menial labor, not commercially successful, daughter reared in it with no ill effects ...... teaching machine = invented in the 1920s by pressey, not enthusiastically received (surplus of teachers, no public pressure to improve learning), resurgence of interest in 1950s when skinner promoted similar difference (excess of students, public pressure to improve education so u.s. could compete with soviet union space) 1968- the technology of teaching: skinner summarized his work in this field. after 1960s computer assisted instructional methods became dominant

Skinner life cont.

1990- attacked the growth of cognitive psychology in a paper delivered at the boston meeting of the american psychological association eight 1990- final article, can psychology be a science of mind? died in 1990 at the age of 86

watson

2nd career applied psychology in advertising. 1. mechanistic view of human 2. proposed experimental (lab) study of consumer behavior publicity for psychology in the popular media

1909

Baldwin: forced by the university president to resign after. caught in a police raid on a brothel. 11 years later watson forced to resign by the same president after he had affair with graduate student that led to a scandal.

ch. 11

Chapter 11 Behaviorism: After the Founding Outline I. The IQ Zoo: Animal House? o Was in Arkansas, no longer open o animals trained to do amazing tricks o Priscilla the pig who switched on a radio, picked up dirty clothes, vacuumed, etc. o Birdbrain, a chicken who played tic tac toe and never lost, not even to Skinner who played once o Zoo started by Keller and Marion Breland, who had been students of Skinner and made their living training animals Three Stages of Behaviorism A. Overview 1. 1924: Titchener conceded that Watsonian behaviorism had engulfed the United States 2. 1930: other varieties of behaviorism emerged B. The Stages 1. 1913-1930: Watsonian behaviorism 2. 1930-1960: Neobehaviorism a. core of psychology is the study of learning b. most behavior can be accounted for by the laws of conditioning c. psychology must adopt the principle of operationism 3. 1960-present: sociobehaviorism and the return to cognitive processes II. Operationism A. Purpose and definition 1. a key feature of Neobehaviorism 2. purpose: a. to render the language and terminology of science more objective and precise b. to rid science of pseudo-problems 3. text definition: "the doctrine that a physical concept can be defined in precise terms relating to the set of operations or procedures by which it is determined" 4. basic principle: " the validity of a finding or construct depends on the validity of the operations used to achieve that finding 5. can be traced to the British empiricists B. Bridgman: The Logic of Modern Physics (1927) 1. called for the precise definition of all physical concepts; concepts lacking physical referents must be discarded 2. A concept is the same as the procedures by which it is determined a. example of length b. contemporary use of operational definitions 3. if a concept cannot be measured and manipulated under controlled conditions, it is a pseudo-problem for science 4. thus, consciousness is relevant in scientific psychology C. Physics continued to be the paradigm for psychology, so Bridgman's views had a tremendous impact III. Edward Chace Tolman (1886-1959) A. Career 1. studied engineering at MIT 2. Harvard PhD in 1915 3. 1912: studies with Kurt Koffka 4. graduate school a. trained as Titchenerian structuralist b. questioned scientific utility of introspection c. became acquainted with Watsonian behaviorism 5. professional experience a. instructor at Northwestern University y b. 1918 hired by the University of California at Berkeley (1) taught comparative psychology (2) conducted research on learning in rats (3) formed his own form of behaviorism after becoming dissatisfied with Watson's c. during WWII was the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), which later became the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) d. in the early 1950's was a Berkeley faculty leader of opposition to the state loyalty oath B. Purposive behaviorism 1. 1932: Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men a. rejected introspection b. had no interest in any presumed internal experiences unless accessible to objective observation c. purposiveness (1) defined in objective behavioral terms (2) all behavior is directed toward some goal d. the fact of learning is objective evidence of purpose 2. the attribution of purpose to behavior was criticized by Watsonian behaviorists because it implied the existence of conscious processes 3. Tolman responded that whether or not presence or degree of organisms were conscious was not relevant to him or did it affect behavioral responses 4. central focus was overt responses C. Intervening variables 1. the initiating causes as well as the results of behavior must be observable and operationally defined 2. causes are independent variables a. environmental stimuli b. psychological drives c. heredity d. previous training e. age 3. resultant behaviors a. a function of the five causes (independent variables) b. relationship expressed in a mathematical formula 4. intervening variables a. the actual determinants of behavior b. connect the stimulus situation with the observed response (1) S-O-R, (2) not S-R c. hunger as the classic example d. cannot be objectively observed e. useful only if clearly related to both the observable independent variable and the observable behavior (1) allowed Tolman to operationally define unobservable, internal states f. initially called this approach "operational behaviorism" D. Learning theory 1. learning was central in Tolman's purposive behaviorism. 2. rejected Thomdike's law of effect a. reward has little influence on learning b. proposed a cognitive explanation of learning in its place 3. repeated performance of a task strengthens the learned relationship between environmental cues and the organism's expectations a. called these relationships "sign Gestalts" (1) are learned (2) cue expectancy associated with a particular choice point either leads or does not lead to reinforcement 4. cognitive map a. a pattern of sign Gestalts b. animal learns a cognitive map, not a set of motor habits (place versus response learning) E. Comment 1. a forerunner of the cognitive movement 2. intervening variables a. engendered scientific respect for operationally defining internal states 3. the rat as an important research subject a. 1930's-1960's primary subject for neobehaviorists b. assumption that one could generalize from rats to other animals and humans c. simple, easy to study, readily available IV. Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952) A. Hull's life 1. Early challenges a. ill health b. poor eyesight c. polio at age 24 d. meet challenges with persistence and resolve e. intense motivation to achieve 2. University of Wisconsin: studied mining engineering before psychology 3. 1918: PhD from Wisconsin; remained on faculty for 10 years 4. early work revealed continued interest in using objective methods and developing useable laws a. concept formation b. effects of tobacco on behavioral efficiency c. tests and measurements d. applied area: Aptitude Testing (1928) e. practical methods of statistical analysis f. invented a machine for calculating correlations g. hypnosis and suggestibility: 10 years, 32 papers, 1 book: Hypnosis and Suggestibility (1933) 5. 1929: research professor at Yale 6. interested in developing a theory of behavior based on Pavlov's laws of conditioning a. 1927: read Pavlov b. 1930's articles about basic conditioning and its usefulness in understanding complex higher-order behaviors 7. 1943: Principles of Behavior, an ambitious theoretical attempt to account for all behavior 8. 1952: A Behavior System, the final form of Hull's theory B. The spirit of mechanism 1. omitted mentalistic terms, including consciousness and purpose 2. used mechanistic terms 3. human behavior a. mechanistic, robotic b. automatic c. reducible to the language of physics 4. machines could be constructed that would display human cognitive functions C. Objective methodology and quantification 1. objective, experimental methods 2. quantitative 3. laws of behavior expressed in the language of mathematics a. equations b. empirical constants c. theorems and corollaries 4. objective definitions 5. rigorous deduction 6. four methods a. simple observation b. systematic controlled observation c. experimental testing of hypotheses d. the hypothetico-deductive method (1) establish postulates (2) deduce experimentally testable hypotheses (3) submit them to experimental test (4) is the method necessary for psychology to be a science D. Drives 1. motivation a. a state of bodily need b. arises from a deviation from optimal biological conditions 2. drive a. an intervening variable b. defined as a "stimulus arising from a state of tissue need that arouses or activates behavior" c. drive reduction is the only basis of reinforcement d. drive strength is empirically determined using key characteristics of the environment or of the resulting behavior (1) length of deprivation (2) intensity, strength, and energy expenditure of the behavior (3) Hull emphasized the latter measure of response strength 3. reinforcement: reduction or satisfaction of a drive 4. primary drives a. arise from a state of physical need b. are vital to the organism's survival 5. secondary drives a. are learned b. are situations or environmental stimuli associated with the reduction of primary drives c. as a result of the association with primary drives, become drives themselves E. Learning 1. has a key role in Hull's system 2. focuses on principle of reinforcement (Thorndike's law of effect) 3. law of primary reinforcement: "When a stimulus-response relationship is followed by a reduction in a bodily need, the probability increases that on subsequent occasions the same stimulus will evoke the same response" a. reinforcement defined in terms of the reduction of a primary need b. primary reinforcement (reduction of a primary drive) is the basis for learning c. secondary reinforcement (reduction of a secondary drive) 4. habit strength: the strength of the S-R connection a. a function of the number of reinforcements that have occurred b. refers to the persistence of the conditioning 5. learning cannot occur without reinforcement a. reinforcement necessary for drive reduction b. Hull's system as ultimately based on need-reduction is contrasted with Tolman's cognitive approach F. Comment 1. experienced the same type of attacks as those directed at Watson and other behaviorists 2. Hull's system faulted for its lack of generalizability 3. pronounced effect on psychology through a. the amount of research generated and provoked b. the achievements of his students and followers c. defending, extending, and expounding objective behaviorism 4. called a "theoretical genius" V. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) A. one of the most influential psychologists in the 20th Century 1. beginning in 1950's, the major embodiment of behaviorism 2. large and loyal group of followers 3. developed and wrote about subjects that had considerable impact a. behavioral control b. behavior modification c. utopian society (Walden Two) d. Beyond Freedom and Dignity, a national bestseller 4. became a celebrity in his own right B. Skinner's life 1. recalled early childhood environment as affectionate and stable 2. same small community and school as attended by parents 3. built things as a child and worked with and observed animals 4. used his early life experiences as a base for his system of psychology a. a product of past reinforcements b. seemingly predetermined, lawful, and orderly c. his experiences traceable to environmental stimuli 5. unhappy undergraduate career at Hamilton College (NY) 6. 1925: Hamilton College (NY): degree in English, no courses in psychology, Phi Beta Kappa 7. worked at writing for two years after favorable feedback from Robert Frost 8. depressed by lack of success as a writer and in romance 9. read about Pavlov's and Watson's experimental work 10. 1931: PhD from Harvard 11. dissertation: a reflex is a correlation between S and R 12. 1938: The Behavior of Organisms; covered basic points of his system 13. 1953: Science and Human Behavior; basic textbook for his system 14. toward end of life a. lived in a controlled environment b. enjoyed writing-a source of positive reinforcement c. published an article "Intellectual Self-Management in Old Age" d. described his feelings of dying with leukemia in a radio interview 15. 1990: vigorously attacked the growth of cognitive psychology in a paper delivered at the Boston meeting of the American Psychological Association eight 16. 1990 (final article): "Can Psychology Be a Science of Mind?" 17. Died in 1990 at the age of 86 C. Skinner's behaviorism 1. in some ways a regeneration of Watsonian Behaviorism 2. although as rigorous as Hull, important contrasts exist a. Hull emphasized the import of theory b. Skinner advocated a system with no theoretical framework (1) not averse to all theorizing (2) warned against premature theorizing 3. devoted to the study of responses 4. concerned with describing behavior rather than explaining it 5. dealt only with observable behavior 6. the task of scientific inquiry a. to establish functional relationships b. between experimenter-controlled stimulus and the organism's response 7. no presumptions about internal entities a. the "empty organism" approach b. internal physiological and mental events exist but not useful to science 8. single-subject design a. large numbers of subjects not necessary b. statistical comparisons of group means not necessary c. a single subject provides valid and replicable results (1) cannot predict behavior of a particular individual from knowledge of the average individual (2) Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior established because mainstream journals did not accept an n of one. D. Original Source Material: from Science of Human Behavior (1953) 1. behavior as the "primary characteristic of living things" 2. influence of work of Descartes and the 17th Century automata on Skinner's approach to behavior 3. evolution of machines in becoming more lifelike E. Operant Conditioning 1. contrasted with respondent (Pavlovian) conditioning, which is elicited by a specific observable stimulus 2. operant behavior a. occurs without an observable external stimulus b. operates on the organism's environment c. the behavior is instrumental in securing a stimulus such as food d. more representative of everyday learning e. most effective approach to science of behavior: the study of the conditioning and extinction of operants 3. studied bar pressing in the Plexiglas "Skinner box": the rate of response 4. law of acquisition: "the strength of an operant behavior increases when it is followed by the presentation of a reinforcing stimulus" a. key variable: reinforcement b. practice provides opportunities for additional reinforcement c. differs from Thorndike's and Hull's positions (1) Thorndike and Hull: explanatory (2) Skinner: strictly descriptive (3) Hull: internal drives, Skinner: empty organism F. Schedules of reinforcement: Conditions involving various rates and times of reinforcement 1. reinforcement is necessary in operant behavior 2. reinforcement schedules a. continuous b. intermittant (1) fixed or variable time of delivery or rate (2) ratio (of responses) 3. Schedules discovered accidentally because of food pellet shortage 4. Schedules more like real life: salary on intermittent schedule 5. Intermittant schedules take longer to extinguish G. Successive Approximation (AKA shaping) 1. lever pressing is simple behavior, most operant behavior more complex 2. See examples from IQ Zoo at chapter's beginning 3. With shaping, behaviors that come closer and closer to the target operant behavior are reinforced 4. Skinner says that is how children learn language H. Aircribs, teaching machines, and pigeon-guided missiles 1. 1945: aircrib a. brought Skinner public notoriety b. mechanized environment invented to relieve menial labor c. not commercially successful d. daughter reared in it with no ill effects 2. teaching machine a. invented in the 1920's by Pressey, not enthusiastically received (1) surplus of teachers (2) no public pressure to improve learning b. resurgence of interest in 1950's when Skinner promoted similar device (1) excess of students (2) public pressure to improve education so U.S. could compete with Soviet Union space c. 1968: The Technology of Teaching: Skinner summarized his work in this field d. after the 1960s, computer-assisted instructional methods became dominant 3. pigeon-guided missiles a. developed by Skinner during WWII (1) guidance system to steer bombs from warplanes to ground targets (2) pigeons housed in missile nose-cones (a) trained through prior conditioning to peck at target image (b) pecking affected angles of missile's fins (c) resultant adjustments kept missile on target (d) pigeons very accurate (e) military not impressed I. Walden Two (1948)—a behaviorist society 1. program of behavioral control 2. a technology of behavior 3. application of laboratory findings to society at large 4. novel of a 1,000-member rural community 5. behavioral control through positive reinforcement 6. outgrowth of Skinner's midlife depression, expressing his own conflicts and despair 7. reflected mechanism of Galileo, Newton, and the empiricists J. Behavior modification 1. uses positive reinforcement 2. applied in a variety of settings 3. works with people in same manger as with animals, by reinforcing desired behavior and extinguishing undesired behavior K. Criticisms of Skinner's behaviorism 1. his extreme positivism 2. his opposition to theory 3. his willingness to extrapolate beyond the data 4. the narrow range of behavior studied 5. his position that all behaviors are learned a. problem of instinctive drift: tendency "to substitute instinctive behaviors for behaviors that had been reinforced" (1) introduced by the work of the Brelands (2) innate behaviors stronger than learned behaviors, even when latter delayed access to food 6. his position on verbal behavior, successfully challenged by Noam Chomsky L. Contributions of Skinner's behaviorism 1. shaped American psychology for 30 years 2. his goal: the improvement of society 3. strength and ramifications of his radical behaviorism VI. Sociobehaviorism: The Cognitive Challenge A. social learning or sociobehaviorist approach 1. primarily are behaviorists 2. reflected the broader cognitive revolution in psychology 3. marks the third stage of behaviorism VII. Albert Bandura (1925- ) A. Background 1. experience with the psychopathology of ordinary life 2. 1952: PhD from the University of Iowa 3. 1981: APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award B. Social cognitive theory 1. behavioristic a. less extreme than Skinner's behaviorism b. reflects current zeitgeist in its interest in cognitive variables 2. research focus: observation of the behavior of humans in interaction 3. emphasizes the role of reinforcement in learning and behavior modification 4. cognitive aspect stresses the influence of thought processes on external reinforcement schedules 5. reactions to stimuli are self-activated, person-initiated rather than automatic 6. reinforcer effective if a. person is consciously aware of what is being reinforced b. person anticipates the same reinforcer if the behavior is repeated 7. vicarious reinforcement: learning "by observing how other people behavior and seeing the consequences of their behavior" rather than directly experiencing the consequences of one's own a. assumes human capacity to anticipate and appreciate those outcomes b. one can regulate one's behavior by (1) imagining those consequences, and (2) making a conscious selection of the behavior to manifest c. is like the S-O-R model, with O being equal to cognitive processes 8. cognitive processes distinguish Bandura's views from Skinner's a. actual schedule of reinforcement less important that what the person believes it is b. who controls behavior (1) Skinner: whoever controls reinforcers (2) Bandura: whoever controls the models in a society 9. salient characteristics of influential models a. same age and sex as self b. peers with similar problems c. high in status and prestige d. exhibit simple behaviors e. display hostile and aggressive behaviors 10. a social learning theory a. behavior as formed and modified in social situations b. criticisms of Skinner's work (1) use of single subjects (2) did not study humans interacting C. Self-efficacy: "our sense of self-esteem or self-worth, our feeling of adequacy, efficiency, and competence in dealing with problems" 1. high versus low self-efficacy persons a. believe they can cope with diverse problems b. expect to overcome obstacles c. seek challenges d. persevere e. confident of ability to succeed f. exert control over their life 2. low self-efficacy persons a. feel helpless or hopeless about coping b. do not expect to overcome or even affect obstacles or situations c. give up initial attempts fail d. believe nothing they can do will make a difference e. believe they have little or no control over their fate 3. wide range of effects of self-efficacy beliefs 4. research shows that high self-efficacy persons experience positive outcomes in most aspects of life 5. diverse groups develop collective high efficacy levels which affect their outcomes in a manner similar to that found with high self-efficacy persons D. Behavior modification 1. Bandura's goal: change or modify socially undesirable behavior 2. focus: external aspects of abnormality, i.e., behavior 3. the use of modeling 4. Bandura's form of behavior therapy is widely used in diverse settings and has strong research support E. Comment 1. criticized by traditional behaviorists who maintain that cognitive processes do not cause behavior 2. positive aspects of Bandura's theory a. widely accepted in psychology b. consistent with the functionalism of American psychology c. objective d. amenable to precise laboratory methods e. responsive to the current cognitive Zeitgeist f. applicable to practical problems VIII. Julian Rotter (1916- ) A. Background 1. grew up comfortably in Brooklyn 2. father lost his business in 19

chapter 12 gestalt psychology

Chapter 12 Gestalt Psychology Outline I. A Sudden Insight o Wolfgang Köhler studied apes on the island Tenerife o Ape learning is not because of trial and error o Köhler did not train the apes, he wanted to see how they would solve problems o Example is ape named Nueva picked up a stick Köhler put in her cage, played with it, lost interest 10 minutes later fruit placed just out of her reach she tried to reach it, whimpered, threw herself on the ground minutes later, she looks at stick, stops whining, uses stick to get fruit an hour later fruit placed, Nueva lost little time retrieving it o Köhler: Nueva's movements are goal-oriented The Gestalt Revolt A. Gestalt revolution in Germany took place around the same time as behaviorist revolution in U.S. 1. 1912: Watson begins attack on Wundt and Titchener 2. Thorndike and Pavlov: animal research having impact 3. Psychoanalysis 10 years old 4. Gestalt and behaviorist revolutions independent of one another a. but both started by opposing Wundt's focus on sensory elements b. ended up opposing each other (1) value of consciousness (a) Gestalt psychologists (i) accepted it (ii) criticized attempt to reduce it to elements (b) behavioral psychologists refused it entirely B. Began as a protest against Wundtian psychology C. Criticisms of Wundt's approach 1. elementistic nature of Wundt's psychology a. sensory elements as inert atoms b. only combination is by mechanical associations (1) Gestaltists criticized this as brick-and-mortar psychology (a) brick = elements (b) mortar = process of association c. we see whole objects (chair, book), not sensory elements (brightness, hue) 2. the notion that perception of objects is a mere summation of elements into a bunch of elements 3. argued that the combination of sensory elements produces something novel (actually Wundt's apperception) 4. the whole is different from the sum of its parts D. More to perception than meets the eye 1. perception goes beyond the sensory elements 2. these elements are only physical data coming to the sense organs II. Antecedent Influences on Gestalt psychology A. Kant (1724-1804) 1. the meaningful organization of sensory elements 2. is not a mechanical process of association 3. mind creates a unitary experience B. Brentano (1838-1917) 1. psychology should study the act of experiencing 2. introspection as artificial 3. approach similar to eventual Gestalt approach C. Mach (1838-1916) 1. a physicist 2. discussed spatial (e.g., geometric figures) and temporal (e.g., melodies) patterns a. considered them to be sensations b. independent of their elements 3. perception of an object does not change when our orientation to it changes (similar to later Gestalt idea of perceptual constancies) D. von Ehrenfels (1859-1932) 1. there exist qualities of experience not explained as combinations of elementary sensations a. called these qualities Gestalt qualitäten (form qualities) b. perceptions based on more than amalgamation of separate sensations c. same melody (form quality) even when played in different keys 2. mind creates a new element as it operates on the sensory elements 3. Wertheimer, a student of von Ehrenfel, considered von Ehrenfels's work the most important antecedent of and stimulation for the Gestalt movement E. William James 1. regarded elements of consciousness as artificial abstractions 2. people perceive wholes, not collections of sensations 3. Koffka and Köhler studied James's work while Stumpf's students F. Phenomenology (Stumpf's introspective method): "...an approach to knowledge based on an unbiased description of immediate experience as it occurs, not analyzed or reduced to elements." 1. uncorrected observation 2. experience not analyzed into elements 3. involves naïve experience G. University of Gottingen 1. 1909-1915: phenomenological psychologists at work 2. anticipated the Gestalt school, which embraced their approach III. The Changing Zeitgeist in Physics A. Physics Zeitgeist toward end 19th century moving away from atomism to force fields B. Fields of force: "Regions or spaces traversed by lines of force, such as of a magnet or electric current." 1. magnetism as typical example: iron shavings around any magnet form a distinctive pattern although not touched by the magnet 2. fields possess properties of spatial extension and pattern 3. fields believed to be novel structural entities, not summations of elements or particles C. Physicists' descriptions of fields and organic wholes: authentication for 1. Kohler: background in physics and studied with Max Planck a. saw connection between field physics and Gestalt wholes b. Gestalt psychology as an application of field physics to parts of psychology 2. James: evidently no training in the new physics a. continued reductionism of old physics b. views compatible with previous atomism IV. The Phi Phenomenon: A Challenge to Wundtian Psychology A. A product of Wertheimer's 1910 research 1. research idea a. developed riding a train while on vacation b. involved seeing movement when no actual physical motion occurs c. left train, bought toy stroboscope, and conducted preliminary test in hotel room 2. actual experiment a. phi phenomenon: "The illusion that two stationary flashing lights are moving from one place to another." b. Koffka and Köhler served as subjects c. subject: apparent movement d. apparatus: tachistoscope to project light through 2 slits (1) 1st slit vertical (2) 2nd slit 20-30 degrees from the vertical e. procedure: project light sequentially (1) long (200+ milliseconds) interval: subjects saw two successive lights (2) short interval: subjects saw two continuous lights (3) optimal (60 milliseconds) interval: subjects saw a single light that appeared to move back and forth between the slits (4) Wertheimer called the latter an "impression of movement" 3. explanation a. Wertheimer (1) phi phenomenon (a) as elementary as a sensation (b) yet different from a sensation or series of sensations (c) did not need explanation (d) could not be reduced to anything simpler b. Wundt (1) introspection of stimulus could only produce two successive points of light (2) fact that the whole experience (apparent movement) different from the sum of parts (two stationary slits) presented a challenge that the associationistic, elementistic psychology of Wundt could not meet 4. 1912: Wertheimer published results in article "Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement" 5. article indicates formal start of Gestalt school V. Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) A. Background 1. studied law at University of Prague, changed to philosophy 2. attended lectures by von Ehrenfels 3. studied philosophy and psychology at University of Berlin 4. 1904: PhD from University of Würzburg with Külpe B. 1921: co-founded the journal Psychological Research C. 1933: fled Germany top the New School for Social Research in New York D. Maslow's concept of self-actualization based partially on Wertheimer VI. Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) A. Background 1. interest in science and philosophy 2. 1909: PhD from University of Berlin with Stumpf 3. 1910: began association with Wertheimer and Köhler at University of Frankfurt B. 1922: "Perception: An Introduction to Gestalt-Theorie" published in American journal Psychological Bulletin 1. described Gestalt psychology's basic concepts and research results and implications 2. 1st introduction to Gestalt theory for U.S. psychologists 3. "perception" in title led to misunderstanding that was the sole interest of Gestaltists 4. Gestalt movement actually had a broader concern a. problems of thinking and learning b. ultimately: with all aspects of conscious experience C. 1927: Professor at Smith College until his death D. 1935: Principles of Gestalt psychology 1. difficult to read 2. therefore, not the definitive treatment he intended VII. Wolfgang Köhler (1887- 1967) A. Background 1. trained in physics with Max Planck 2. convinced that a. Gestalten occur in psychology as well as in physics b. psychology must become allied with physics 3. 1909: Ph.D. from University of Berlin with Stumpf B. Career 1. 1913-1920: unable to leave Tenerife (Canary Islands) during WWI 2. studies the behavior of chimpanzees 3. 1917: The Mentality of Apes 4. 1922: succeeded Stumpf as Professor of Psychology at University of Berlin a. probable reason for prestigious appointment: publication of Static and Stationary Physical Gestalts (1920) b. suggested Gestalt theory as general law of nature 5. mid 1920s: divorced wife, married young student, broke off contact with the 4 children of his prior marriage, developed tremor that increased when angry 6. 1929: Gestalt psychology 7. 1935: left Germany due to anti-Nazi activities a. criticized regime in classroom lectures b. only non-Jewish psychologist in Germany to publicly protest firing of Jewish scholars c. most instructors and students actively backed the Nazi d. leaders of the German Psychological Society went even further, firing Jewish journal editors, lauding Hitler, and proclaiming the Jews "evil influence" 8. emigrated to U.S. to teach at Swarthmore College 9. published books 10. edited Gestalt journal Psychological Research 11. 1957: Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from APA 12. 1959: president of APA VIII. The Nature of the Gestalt Revolt A. In German psychology: heretical and a rebellion directly against Wundt B. Demanded complete revision of psychology C. Research 1. Wertheimer: apparent movement 2. perceptual constancy: "A quality of wholeness or completeness in perceptual experience that does not vary even when the sensory elements change." 3. all perceptual experience: there exists a wholeness not found in any of the component parts 4. the character of the perception differs from the character of the sensory stimulation 5. attempts at analysis destroy the perception or whole (Gestalt) D. Two meanings of Gestalt noted by Köhler (1929) 1. shape or form as a property of objects 2. a whole or concrete entity that has one of its attributes a specific shape or form 3. therefore, "Gestalt" refers to both objects and to their characteristic forms 4. the term is not restricted to visual or sensory fields 5. can refer to learning, thinking, emotions, and behavior 6. extends to all of psychology E. Gestalt psychologists include the entire province of psychology IX. Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization A. 1923: Wertheimer's principles published in an article 1. perceive wholes, not clusters of sensations 2. perceptual organization occurs instantly and is spontaneous and inevitable 3. brain as a dynamic system; all active elements interact 4. some specific organizational principles include proximity, continuity, similarity, closure, simplicity (prägnanz or good form), and figure/ground 5. organizing principles not dependent on either higher mental processes or past experience 6. organizing principles instead are present in the stimuli themselves a. called these peripheral factors b. also recognized role played by central factors such as attitude and familiarity in influencing perception 7. Gestalt psychologists focus more on peripheral factors of perceptual organization than on learning or experience X. Gestalt Studies of Learning: Insight and the Mentality of Apes A. Intelligence of chimpanzees demonstrated in ability to solve problems B. Apparatus: the animal's cages and convenient objects such as cage bars, sticks, bananas, boxes C. Köhler's interpretation of results 1. in terms of the whole 2. in terms of the relationships among the various stimuli XI. Original Source Material: From Köhler's (1927) The Mentality of Apes A. Focuses on 1. the personalities of his subjects 2. the individual differences he observed B. Method 1. no formal experimental design 2. no pre- and post-test measures 3. no formal experimental treatments or control groups 4. no statistical analyses 5. he simply described his observations C. Comment 1. Einsicht or insight (Köhler) and ideational learning (Yerkes) 2. insight versus trial-and-error learning 3. insight studies support a. molar (Gestalt) versus molecular (behavioristic) view b. learning involves a reorganization of the psychological environment XII. Productive Thinking in Humans A. Based on book by Wertheimer published posthumously (1945) B. Thinking as done in terms of wholes 1. the learner regards the situation as a whole 2. the teacher must present the situation as a whole 3. the whole problem must dominate the parts a. at different ages b. at various levels of problem difficulty C. Transfer of the principle of the solution to other situations D. Köhler argued rote learning 1. interferes with the transfer principles 2. is appropriate only for material learned through association and strengthened by repetition 3. leads to mechanical performance, not creative thinking XIII. Isomorphism A. Theory about neurological correlates of perceived Gestalts 1. Gestalt: view the cortex as a dynamic system 2. associationists: brain is a. passive b. incapable of actively organizing sensory elements received c. incapable of modifying sensory elements received B. Werthheimer 1. brain activity is a configural whole process 2. apparent and actual motion experienced identically 3. therefore, cortical processes for the two must be similar 4. isomorphism: "The doctrine that there is a correspondence between psychological or conscious experience and the underlying brain experience." C. Köhler 1. 1920: Static and Stationary Physical Gestalts; extended Wertheimer's position 2. cortical processes are similar to fields of force 3. fields of neuronal activity due to electromechanical processes in the brain that are the response of sensory impulses XIV. The Spread of Gestalt psychology A. Mid-1920's 1. a coherent and dominant school in Germany 2. American students such as Tolman and Allport 3. Koffka and Köhler: many lectures in the United States B. 1933 Nazi regime: shift of Gestalt psychology to the United States C. Slow acceptance in the United States 1. behaviorism was at its peak 2. a language barrier 3. belief that Gestalt psychology dealt solely with perception 4. Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka at small colleges without graduate programs, thus no graduate research assistants 5. Gestalt focus of protest (Wundt) no longer of concern in U.S. XV. The Battle With Behaviorism A. Gestalt criticisms of its new target 1. reductionistic and atomistic 2. deals with artificial abstractions (S-R units) 3. denies the validity of introspection 4. eliminates consciousness 5. would make psychology no more than a collection of animal research 6. conflicts between proponents of the two schools: increasingly emotional and personal XVI. Gestalt Psychology in Nazi Germany A. The founders fled, but students of Gestalt remained B. They continued research, focusing on vision and depth perception C. Kohler's Psychological Institute remained open D. Like all German universities, lack of openness to intellectual thought, focus on research to help war effort XVII. Field Theory: Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) 1. field relationships are the trend in late 19th-century science 2. term as associated with Lewin's work: "Lewin's system using the concept of fields of force to explain behavior in terms of one's field of social influences." 3. extended beyond the orthodox Gestalt framework to include human needs, personality, and social influences on behavior B. Lewin's life 1. studied mathematics and physics at German universities 2. 1914: PhD at University of Berlin with Stumpf 3. research: human motivation and behavior within its total context a. early career: research on association and motivation b. middle career: field theory c. later career: social psychology and group dynamics C. The life space 1. the psychological field of the individual a. encompasses all past, present, and future events that may affect a given person b. each of the above events may determine behavior in a given situation c. degree of life space development is a function of amount and type of experience accumulated 2. sought a mathematical model a. interested in the single case b. statistics not useful c. chose topology, a form of geometry, to diagram life space d. within a topological map (1) vector (arrow): direction of a person's movement toward goal (2) valence (weighted + or -): values of objects in the life space (3) barrier: vertical line e. his diagrams: sometimes called "blackboard psychology" D. Motivation and the Zeigarnik effect 1. Lewin proposed state of balance or equilibrium a. between the person and her or his environment b. disturbance in equilibrium produces tension c. resultant movement is attempt to restore the balance d. behavior = cycle of tension (need) states followed by activity and relief 2. the Zeigarnik effect: "The tendency to recall uncompleted tasks more easily than completed tasks." E. Social psychology 1. Lewin's interest in it began in 1930s a. pioneering contributions b. sufficient to justify high status in history of psychology c. outstanding feature: group dynamics (1) applied to individual and group behavior (2) psychological field: person + his/her environment (3) social field: group + its environment (4) concurrent social entities (5) group behavior: function of the total field situation at a given time (a) classic experiment (i) effects of authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership styles on behavior of boys (ii) authoritarian style: aggressive behavior (iii) democratic style: friendly with more tasks completed d. social action research (1) study of social problems (2) goal: implementing change (3) problems studied: integrated housing, equal opportunity, prejudice reduction e. sensitivity training groups (T-groups) (1) target participants: educators and businessmen/women (2) goal: reduce intergroup conflict; develop individual potential (3) forerunner of the encounter groups of 1960s/1970s XVIII. Criticisms of Gestalt psychology A. Basic criticisms 1. Organization of perceptual processes accepted as fact rather than studied scientifically 2. Gestalt position is vague 3. Basic concepts and terms are not defined with sufficient rigor 4. Too preoccupied with theory at the expense of research and empirical support 5. Research lacks adequate controls 6. Its unquantified data elude statistical analysis 7. Gestalt experimental work is inferior to that of the behaviorists 8. insight learning: not replicable 9. poorly defined physiological assumptions B. Gestalt rebuttals 1. a young science's explanation and definitions are necessarily incomplete 2. incomplete is not the same vague 3. has from the beginning emphasized experimentation 4. has engendered a considerable amount of research 5. qualitative results take precedence over quantitative ones 6. Gestalt research is exploratory 7. Gestalt research is within a different framework than the behaviorists' 8. Gestalt speculations about physiological assumptions are a tentative but useful adjunct to their system XIX. Contributions of Gestalt psychology A. Permanent imprint on psychology B. Influenced work in "perception, learning, thinking, personality, social psychology, and motivation C. Retained its identity, not absorbed by the mainstream as was behaviorism D. Focus on consciousness 1. fostered interest in consciousness as a legitimate problem for psychology 2. centered on phenomenology, not on the Wundt/Titchener elements of consciousness 3. recognizes consciousness cannot be studied with the precision and objectivity the behaviorists demand 4. phenomenological approach to psychology accepted more by European than by U.S. psychologists 5. this phenomenology influenced humanistic psychology movement in U.S.

walden two 1948 behaviorist society

a behaviorist society, a technology behavior, application of laboratory findings to society at large, novel of 1,000-member rural community, behavioral control though positive reinforcement, outgrowth of skinners midlife depression, expressing his own conflicts and despair, reflected mechanism of galileo, newton, and the empiricists

tolan learning theory cognitive map

a pattern of sign gestalts, animal learns a cognitive map, not a set of motor habits (place versus response learning) learning theory = a forerunn of the cognitive movement, intervening variables engendered scientific respect for operationally defining internal states, the rat as an important research subject 1930's-1960's primary subject for neobehaviorists, assumption that one could generalize from rats to other animals and humans, simple, easy to study, readily available

cognitive processes distinguish views from skinners

actual schedule of reinforcement less important that what the person believes it is, who controls behavior skinner: whoever controls reinforcer bandura: whoever controls the models in a society

methods of behaviorism

adoption of the methods as natural sciences, only accepted objective methods: observation, with and without instruments, testing methods, verbal report method, conditioned reflex method, test results are samples of behavior, not indices of mental qualities

tolman purposive behaviorism 1932

animals and men, rejected introspection, no interest in any presumed internal experiences unless accessible to objected observation, purposiveness defined in objective behavioral terms, all behavior is directed toward some goal , the attribution of purpose to behavior was criticized by watsonian behaviorists because it implied the existence of conscious processes, responded that whether or not presence or degree of organisms were conscious was not relevant to him or did not affect behavioral responses, central focus was overt responses

chapter 11 after the founding the iq zoo

arkansas, no longer open, animals trained to do amazing tricks, priscilla the pig who switched on a radio, picked up dirty clothes, vacuumed, etc. birdbrain, a chicken who played tic tac toe and never lost , not even to skinner who played once, zoo started by keller and marion breland, who had been students of skinner and made their living training animals

experimental ethics

based on behaviorism, part of a plan to improve society, framework for research, elaborated by skinner

social learning theory

behavior as formed and modified in social situations, criticisms of skinners work (use of single subjects, did not study humans interacting)

1914 watson

behavior: an introduction to comparative psychology 1. argued for acceptance of animal psychology 2. described advantages of animal subjects 3. discussed importance of ridding psychology of the remnants of philosophy

reaction to watson's program initial reactions

behaviorism was not embraced, his 1919 book psychology from the standpoint of a behaviorist hastened the movements impact, calkins: disputed watson; adhered to introspection as the sole method for studying some processes, washburn: called watson an enemy of psychology

Bandura social cognitive theory

behavioristic, less extreme than behaviors behaviorism, reflects current zeitgeist in its interest in cognitive variables, research focus: observation of the behavior of human in interaction, emphasizes the role of reinforcement in learning and behavior modification, stresses the influence of thought processes on external reinforcement schedules, reactions to stimuli are self-activated, person initiated rather than automatics

emotions watson

bodily responses to specific stimuli, denied conscious perception of emotion or sensations from internal stimuli, each emotion = specific configuration of physiological changes, form of implicit behavior: internal responses are evident in overt physical signs such as blushing

1909 watson

chair of psychology and editor of psychological review

behavior modification bandura

change or modify socially undesirable behavior, focus n external aspects abnormality behaviors, the use of modeling, used in diverse settings, strong research support

Julian Rotter 1916-

cognitive procceses, four principles, met adler switch to psych, 1947-first to use term social learning theory, locus of control = beliefs about the source of our reinforces internal: depending on ones own behavior, 23 item forced-choice test, attracts followers who are experimentally oriented, think cognitive variables influence behavior

simple versus complex stimuli

complex stimulus situation can be reduced to simple, component stimuli example of simple stimuli: light waves striking retina

albert, peter, and the rabbits

conditioned (learned) emotional responses watson said adult fears are learned and do not arise from freud's unconscious conflicts

skinner schedules of reinforcement

conditions involving various rates and times of reinforcement. necessary in operant behavior. continuous, intermittent, fixed or variable time of delivery or rate, ratio of responses, discovered accidentally because of food pellet shortage, real life, salary on intermittent schedule, intermittant schedules take longer to extinguish

1903

considered a more objective approach to psychology (watson)

skinner operant conditioning

contrasted with conditioning, elicited by a specific observable stimulus, operate = occurs without an observable external stimulus, operates on the organisms environment, the behavior is instrumental in securing a stimulus such as food, more effective approach to science of a behavior: the study of the conditioning and extinction of operants, bar pressing in the plexiglas skinner box the rate of response

John B. Watson

credited others as originators of behaviorism

emotions watson critical

critical of james more complex position involving conscious perception and a feeling of state.

chapter 11 comment

criticized by traditional behaviorists who maintain that cognitive processes do not cause behavior, positive aspects of banduras theory: widely accepted, consistent with functionalism, objective, amenable, responsive, applicable

1924 mcdougall

debate with watson, agreed data of behavior are a proper focus for psychology, argued data of consciousness also necessary, questioned watsons tenet that human behavior is fully determined, critical of watsons use of the verbal report method

John B. Watson

delinquent behavior in youth, determined to be a minister to fulfill mothers wish, enrolled at furman university: studied philosophy, math, latin, greek (watson)

watson

desired practical applications

pigeon-guided missiles

developed by skinner during wwii, guidance system to steer bombs from warplans to ground targets, pigeons house in missile nose-cones, trained through prior conditioning to peck at target image, pecking affecting angles of missiles fins, resultant adjustments kept missile on taget, pigeons very accurate, military not impressed

Skinner Life

early childhood environment affectionate and stable, same small community and school as attended by parents, built things as child and worked with and observed animals, used his early life experiences as a base for his system of psychology (a product of past reinforcements, seemingly predetermined, lawful, orderly, and his experiences traceable to environmental stimuli, unhappy undergraduate career at Hamiliton College NY)

1900

earned masters degree at furman and mother died then enrolled at the university of chicago. planned to pursue graduate degree in philosophy with dewey. attracted to psychology through work with angell. studied biology and physiology with loeb (watson)

instincts 1925 watson

eliminated the concept of instinct, an extreme environmentalist, denied inherited capacities, temperaments, talents, children can become anything one desires, factor in his popularity with the american lay public, seemingly instinctive behavior is actually a socially conditioned response, psychology can be only applied if behavior can be modified

william mcdougall 1871-1938

english psychologist, affiliated with harvard and duke, noted for his instinct theory of behavior (human behavior results from innate tendencies to thought and action) noteworthy book on social psychology spurred that field, supported free will, nordic superiority, psychic research

Albert bandura (1925-)

experience with psychopathology of ordinary life, 1952- phd from the university of iowa, 1981- apa distinguished scientific contribution award

1918 watson

experimental research on children

criticisms skinners behaviorism

extreme positivism, opposition to theory, willingness to extrapolate beyond data, narrow range of behavior studied, al behaviors are leading (problem of instinctive drift tendency to substitute instinctive behaviors for behaviors that had be reinforced, introduced by the work of the brelands, innate behaviors stronger than learned behaviors, even when latter delayed access to food) his position on verbal behavior successfully changed by noam chomsky

1968 mary cover jones

given g stanley hall award for her outstanding work in developmental psychology

subject matter behaviorism/items or elements

goal: understand overall behavior of the total organism, acts versus responses, act complete behaviors, response act accomplishes some result, capable of being reduced to simple, lower-level motor or glandular responses, explicit versus implicit responses, explicit is overtly observable, implicit happen inside organism (glandular secretions) must be potentially observable, observable through the use of instruments

criticisms of watsons behaviorism

holt 1873-1946 received ph.d. under william james at harvard, after harvard worked at princeton, consciousness should not be rejected, learnning can occur in response to internal needs and drives, focused on larger behaviors thathad some purpose for the organism

chapter 11 comment hull

hull experienced the same type of attacks as those directed at watson and other behaviorists, hulls system faulted for its lack of generalizability, pronounced effect on psychology though 1. amount of research generated and provoked 2. the achievements of his students and followers, defending, extending, and expounding objective behaviorism, called a theoretical genius

specific laws of behavior

identified through analysis of S-R complexes, must find elementary S-R units all areas of behavior: must use objected S-R terms

clark leonard hull 1884-1952

ill health, poor eye sight, polio at age 24, meet challenges with persistence and resolve, intense motivation to achieve, university of wisconsin studied mining engineering before psychology 1918: phd from wisconsin remained on faculty for 10 years, early work revealed continued interest in using objected methods and developing useable laws (concept formation, effects on tobacco, tests/measurements, applied area: aptitude testing 1928, practical methods of statistical analysis, machine for calculating correlations, hypnosis/suggestibility: 10 years, 32 papers, 1 book:hypnosis and suggestibility 1933, 1929 research professor at yale

conditioned reflex experiments watson

implied emotional disturbances in adulthood due to conditioned responses during earlier years. implies proper childhood conditioning precludes adult disorders

tolman intervening variables

initiating causes as well as the results of behavior must be observable and operationally defined. causes are independent variables (environment stimuli, psychological drives, heredity, previous training, age) .... resultant behaviors(function of the five causes of independent variables, relationship expressed in math formula, actual determinants of behavior, connect the stimulus situation with the observed response S-O-R not S-R hunger as the classic example, cannot be objectively observed, useful only if clearly related to both the observable independent variable and the observation behavior (allowed tolman to operationally define unobservable internal states) initially called this approach operational behaviorism

1899

intended entry into Princeton theological seminary (watson)

clark hull life

interested in developing a theory of behavior based on pavlovs laws of conditioning 1929- read pavlov 1930's- articles about basic conditioning and its usefulness in understanding complex higher-order behaviors 1943- principles of behaviors account for all behavior, 1952- behavior system, the final form of hulls theory

operationism

key feature of neobehaviorism, render the language and terminology of science more objective and precise, to rid science of pseudo-problems, text definition: the doctrine that a physical concept can be defined in precise terms relating to the set of operations or procedures by which it is determined

learning hull

key role in system, focuses on principle of reinforcement (thorndikes law of effect)

Skinner behaviorism single-subject design

large numbers of subjects not necessary, statistical comparisons of group means not necessary, a single subject provides a valid and replicable results (cannot predict behavior of a particular individual from knowledge of the average individual, journal of the experimental analysis of behavior established because mainstream journals did not accept an n of one

criticisms of watsons behaviorism

lashley 1890-1958 student of watson at john hopkins, a physiological psychologist, 1929: brain mechanisms and intelligence

tolman learning theory

learning was central in purposive behaviorism, rejected thorndikes law of effect, said reward has little influence on learning, proposed a cognitive explanation of learning in its place, repeated performance of a task strengths the learning relationship between environmental cues and the organisms expectations, called these relationships sign gestalts and said they are learned and cue expectancy associated with a particular choice point either leads or does not lead to reinforcement

verbal reports

legitimate in psychophysics, speech reactions are objectively observable, thinking is speaking covertly, admitted the lack of precision, and limitations, limited it to situations where it could be verified, came under attack (sounded like introspection)

successive approximation aka shaping

level pressing is simple behavior, more operant behavior more complex, behaviors that come closer and closer to the target operant behavior are reinforced, skinner says that is how children learn language

contributions of watsons behaviorism

made psychology more objective in methods and terminology, stimulated a great deal of research, surmounted earlier positions and schools, objective methods and language became part of the mainstreem

reaction to watson's program major points

major points: science of behavior, purely objective experimental branch of natural science, both animal and human are studied, discard all mentalistic concepts, use only behavior concepts, goal: prediction and control of behavior

drives hull

motivation = state of bodily need, arises from deviation from optimal biological conditions/ drive = intervening variable, stimulus arising from a state of tissue and need that arouses or activates behavior, drive reduction is the only basis of reinforcement, drive strength is empirically determined used key characteristics of the environment or of the resulting behavior (length of deprivation, intensity, strength, and energy expenditure of the behavior, hull emphasized the latter measure of response strength) reinforcement: reduction or satisfaction of a drive primary = arise from a state of physical need, vital to the organisms survival, secondary = learned, situations or environmental stimuli associated with the reduction of primary drives, as a result of the association with primary drives, become drives themselves

three things emotions

objective stimulus situation, overt bodily response, internal physiological changes. fear love rage are not learned through emotional response patterns to stimuli: loud noises or sudden lack of support lead to fear, restriction of bodily movements lead to rage, caressing, rocking, patting lead to love

objective methodology and quantification hull

objective, experimental methods, quantitative, laws of behaviors expressed in the language of mathematics equations, empirical constants, theorems and corollaries, objective definitions, rigorous deduction, four methods: simple observation, systematic controlled observation, experimental testing of hypotheses, hypothetico-deductive method (establish postulates, deduce experimentally testable hypotheses, submit them to experimental test, method necessary for psych to be a science)

1908

offered professorship at john hopkins university. reluctant to leave university of chicago, new job offered promotion, salary raise, and opportunity to direct the psychology laboratory (watson)

James Mark Baldwin

offered the john hopkins job to watson. founder with cattell of psychological review

spirit of mechanism hull

omitted mentalistic terms including consciousness and purpose, used mechanistic terms, human behavior (mechanistic, robotic, automatic, reducible to the language of physics) machines could not be constructed that would display human cognitive functions

Skinner 1904-1990

one of the most influential psychologists in the 20th century, beginning in 1950's, the major embodiment of behaviorism, large and loyal group of followers, developed and wrote about subjects that had considerable impact (behavioral control, behavior modification, utopian society walden two, beyond freedom and dignity a national best seller, became a celebrity in his own right

1930

other varieties of behaviorism emergered

self-efficacy

our sense of self-esteem or self-worth, our feeling of adequacy, efficiency, and competence in dealing with problems. high versus low self-efficacy person (high: believe they can cope with diverse problems, expect to overcome obstacles, seek challenges, persevere, confident of ability to succeed, exert control over their life. low: helpless, give up). Research shows high persons experience positive outcomes in most aspects of life, diverse groups develop collective high efficacy levels which affect their outcomes in a manner similar to that found with high self-efficacy persons

behavior modification skinner

positive reinforcement, variety, same manger as with animals by reinforcing desired behavior and extinguishing undesired behavior

1912 watson

presented ideas for a more objective psychology in lectures at columbia

original source material: from science of human behavior 1953

primary characteristic of living things, influence of work as descartes and the 17th century automata on skinners approach to behavior, evolution of machines in becoming more lifelike

outbreak of psychology

product of a public already attentive and receptive of psychology and watsons considerable charm and vision of hope for behavioral change and the betterment of society. exemplified by 1. psychological advice columns 2. joseph jastrows popularizations of psychology through magazine, newspaper "Keeping Mentally Fit", radio program, and pop psychology book, piloting your life: the psychologist as helsman 3. albert wiggam colum exploring you mind

1913 watson

psychology as the behaviorist views it (baldwin) launched behaviorism

1919 watson

psychology from the standpoint of a behaviorist 1. most complete account behaviorism to date 2. argued methods and principles of animal research are appropriate for study of humans

Skinner behaviorism

regeneration of watsonian behaviorism, rigorous as hull contrasts include: hull emphasized the import of theory, skinner advocated a system with no theoretical framework (not averse to all theorizing, warned against premature theorizing), devoted to the study of responses, concerned with describing behavior rather than explaining it, dealt with only observable behavior, the task of scientific inquiry (establish functional relationships, between experimenter-controlled stimulus and the organisms response) no presumptions about internal entities (the "empty organism" approach, internal physiological and mental events exist but not use to science)

social cognitive theory bandura

reinforcer effective if person is consciously aware of what is being reinforced, person anticipates the same reinforcer if the behavior is repeated. vicarious reinforcement: learning "by observing how other people behavior and seeing the consequences of their behaviors" rather than directly experiencing consequences ones own. 1. assumes human capacity to anticipate and appreciate those outcomes 2. one can regulate ones behavior by imagining those consequences and making a conscious selection of the behavior to manifest, is like the S-O-R model with the O being equal to cognitive processes

salient characteristics of influential models

same age and sex as self, peers with similar problems, high in status and prestige, exhibit simple behaviors, display hostile and aggressive behaviors

John B. Watson

saw himself as bringing together the emergent ideas, goal was to found a new school (watson)

Sociobehaviorism cognitive challenge

social learning or sociobehaviorist approach. primarily are behaviorists, reflected the broader cognitive revolution in psychology, marks the third stage of behaviorism

fate of behaviorism

sociobehaviorist consider themselves to be methodological behaviorists employ internal cognitive processes contrast with radical behaviorists like watson and skinner who do not deal with presumed internal states skinner peaked 1980s, declined after skinners death 1990

chapter 10 the beginnings

steel rod hung behind albert, watson struck the rod with a hammer, startling the baby who reacted fearfully and cried, rosalie raynor also was there as an assistant, albert had been chosen because he was emotionally stable, prior to conditioning, albert showed litter fear response to a variety of objects, after the conditioning, albert shows fear in reaction to a variety of stimuli, watson and raynor show that fear can be conditioned, argued that adults fear are a result of conditioning

skinner law of acquisition

strength of an operant behavior increases when it is followed by the presentation of a reinforcing stimulus key variable reinforcement, practice provides opportunities for additional reinforcement, differs from thorndike and hulls positions 1. thorndike & hall = explanatory, 2. skinner: strictly descriptive, 3. hull: internal drivers, skinner: empty organism

tolman 1886-1959 career

studied engineering at MIT, Harvard phd in 1915, 1912 studies with kurt koffka, graduate school trained as titchenerian structuralist, questioned scientific utility of introspection, became acquainted with watsonian behaviorism, professional experience: instruction at northwestern university 1918 was hired by the university of california at berkeley, taught comparative psychology, conducted research on learning in rats, formed his own form of behaviorism after becoming dissatisfied with watsons, during WWII was the offical of strategic services which alter became the central intelligence agency CIA, in the early 1950's was a berkely faculty leader of opposition to the state loyalty oath

law of mass action lashley

the efficiency of learning is a function of the total mass of cortical tissue

principle of equipotentiality lashley

the idea that one part of the cerebral cortex is essentially equal to another in its contribution to learning

operationism basic principle

the validity of a finding or construct depends on the validity of the operations used to achieve that find, can be traded to the british empiricists, if a concept cannot be measured and manipulated under controlled conditions, it is a pseudo-problem for science, consciousness is relevant in scientific psychology, physics had continued to be the paradigm for psychology, so brigmans views had a tremendous impact

thought processes watsons view

thinking is implicit motor behavior, type of sensorimotor behavior, involved implicit speech reactions or movements, reduced it to subvocal talking, same muscular habits are used for overt speech, others warn us not to talk aloud to ourselves, so we become unaware of the muscular habits used while thinking, thinking = silent talking to oneself

thought processes traditional view

thinking occurs in the absence of muscle movements, not accessible to observation and experimentation

1924

titchner conceded that watsonian behaviorism had engulfed the united states

reaction to watsons's program 1920's

university courses in behaviorism, the word behaviorist appeared in journals, mcdougall: issues a public warning against behaviorism, titchener: complained of its force and extent, other forms of behaviorism emerging

behaviorisms popular appeal

watson called for a society based on scientifically shaped and controlled behavior free of myths customs and convention, the religion called behaviorism 1927 berman read by skinner, emphasis on childhood environment and minimization of heredity

conditioned reflex method adopted in 1915

watson responsible for its widespread use in u.s. research, conditioning is stimulus substitution, selected because it is an objective method of behavior analysis, reflected reductionism and mechanism, human subject: the observed rather than the observer (designation changed from observer to subject, experimenter became the observer)

1935

watson wife died he became a recluse

1925

watson: behaviorism introduced plan to perfect the social order. 1928 psychological care of the infant and child. strong environmentalist position recommended perfect objectivity in child-rearing practices had the greatest impact of all work

1920

watson: forced resignation from john hopkins university. marriage deteriorated and led to divorce due to his infidelities. fell in love with rosalie rayner, graduate assistant half his age/from family of wealthy donors to the university. wife found his passionate but rather scientific love letters to rosalie. excerpts published in baltimore sun. astonished when forced to resign. married rosalie but still banished from academia, titchener one of the few academics who reached out to comfort him

original source material: from psychology as the behaviorist views it (1913)

watson: the definition and goal of behaviorism. criticisms of structuralism and functionalism, the role of heredity and habit in adaption, applied psychology is truly scientific, importance of standardized or uniform experimental procedures

law of pimary reinforcement hull

when a stimulus-response relationship is followed by a reduction in a bodily need, the probability increases that on subsequent occasions the same stimulus will evoke the same response, reinforcement defined in terms of the reduction of a primary need, primary reinforcement (reduction of a primary drive) is the basis for learning, secondary reinforcement (reduction of a secondary drive) habit strength: strength of the S-R connection(a function of the number of reinforcements that have occurred, refers to the persistence of the conditioning) learning cannot occur without reinforcement (reinforcement necessary for drive reduction, hulls system as ultimately based on need-reduction is contrasted with tolmans cognitive approach)

mary cover jones

worked with 3 year peter who came to her with a abiit phobia, treatment method: involve peter in eating, bring rabbit at a distance that not produce crying, each day decrease the distance, after a few months peter could touch the rabbit without exhibiting fear, this approach is a forerunner of behavior therapy, generalized fear responses also eliminated