Chapter 12

Why has oil become the dominant form of commercial energy? Which countries are the main producers of crude oil? Why is it difficult to predict how long proved reserves of oil are likely to last?

-Petroleum rose to importance because of its combustion characteristics and it adaptability as a concentrated energy source for vehicles. The efficiency of pipelines, supertankers, and other modes of transport and the low cost of oil helped create a world dependence on that fuel, even though coal was still generally and cheaply available -The main producers of crude oil are Saudi Arabia, Russia, the US, Iran, China, Canada, and Mexico -It is difficult to predict how long proved reserves of oil are likely to last because the estimates are constantly revised as oil is extracted and new reserves are located. In addition, many governments tend to maintain some secrecy about the sizes of reserves, understanding official national estimates

What is the basic distinction between a renewable and a nonrenewable resource? Why do estimates of proved reserves vary over time?

-Renewable resources are materials that are replaced or replenished by natural processes, they can be used over and over; the supplies are not depleted -Nonrenewable resources exist in finite amounts or are generated in nature so slowly that for all practical purposes the supply is finite -The reason why estimates of proved reserves vary over time is because if new deposits of the resource are discovered, the reserve category will shift to the right; improved technology or increased prices for the product can shift the reserve boundary downward

Discuss three ways of reducing demands on resources.

-Soil erosion cannot exceed soil formation -Forest destruction cannot exceed forest regeneration -Species extinction cannot exceed species evolution

Since soil erosion is a natural process, why is it of concern? What are some commonly used methods of reducing erosion? Under what conditions and in what types of areas do desertification and salinization occur?

-Soil erosion is of concern because pressures upon farmlands have increased with population growth. Existing fields have had to be worked more intensively and less carefully. The pressure of growing population numbers is having an especially destructive effect on tropical rain forests -Common methods of reducing erosion: Desertification and salinization -Desertification occurs in arid and semiarid environments. It occurs in conditions of land deterioration -Salinization occurs under conditions of poorly drained irrigation systems. It occurs in poorly drained soils in dry climates

Why has the proportion of US energy supplied by coal increased since 1961? What ecological and social problems are associated with the use of coal?

-The US alone possesses nearly 240 billion tons of coal considered potentially minable on an economic basis with existing technology. In the US and other industrialized countries, coal is used chiefly for electric power generation and to make coke for steel production -The ecological, health, and safety problems associated with the mining and combustion of coal must also be figured into its cost. The destruction of the original surface and the acid contamination of lakes and streams associated with the strip mining and burning of coal are partially controlled by environmental protection laws, but these measures add to the costs -Eastern US coals have a relatively high sulfur content, and costly techniques for the removal of sulfur and other wastes from stack gases are now required by most industrial countries, including the US

Photovoltaic(PV) cells

A device that converts solar energy directly into electrical energy

Ore

A mineral deposit that can be extracted at a profit

Oil sands

A mixture of sand, clay, and silt(85%); water(5%); and bitumen(10%), a very thick, tarlike, high carbon petroleum

Wind farms

Clusters of wind powered turbines producing commercial electricity

Perpetual resources

Come from resources that are virtually inexhaustible, such as the sun, wind, waves, tides, and geothermal energy

Nonrenewable resources

Exist in finite amounts or are generated in nature so slowly that for all practical purposes the supply is finite

Potentially renewable resources

Exist in finite amounts or are generated in nature so slowly that for all practical purposes the supply is finite

Hydropower

Exploits the energy present in falling or flowing water

Renewable resources

Materials that are replaced or replenished by natural processes

Liquefied natural gas(LNG)

Methane gas that has been liquefied by refrigeration for storage or transportation

Shale gas

Natural gas trapped within sedimentary shale rocks, often in close proximity to petroleum deposits

Proved(usable) reserves

Quantities of a resource that can be extracted profitably from known deposits- only the portion of the rectangle indicated by the pink tint

Solar energy

Radiation from the sun, which is transformed into heat primarily at the earth's surface and secondarily in the atmosphere

Wetlands

Vegetated land surfaces that are periodically or permanently covered by or saturated with standing water

Estuarine zone

The relatively narrow area of wetlands along coastlines where salt water and fresh water meet and mix

Soil erosion

The removal of soil particles, usually by wind or running water

Hydraulic fracturing

The well is drilled vertically until it reaches the oil-bearing shale formation; then the shaft turns and drills laterally

In 1974, when the US imported 35% of the oil it consumed, President Richard M. Nixon in his State of the Union Address said, "Let this be our national goal... The United States will not be dependent on any other country for the energy we need to provide our jobs, to heat our homes, and to keep our transportation moving." The aim of his Project Independence was to be independent of foreign energy sources by 1980. How do you account for the fact that, more than 35 years later, the US imports more than one-half of the oil it consumes?

-Between 1970 and 1977, as domestic supplies became more expensive to extract, consumption of oil from foreign sources increased dramatically, until almost one-half of the oil it consumed nationally was imported -The dependence of the US and other advanced industrial economies on imported oil gave the oil-exporting countries tremendous power, reflected in the soaring rise of oil in the 1970s. During that decade, oil prices rose dramatically, largely as a result of the strong position of the OPEC -After 1985, both global production and global consumption of oil increased steadily. The US, which had satisfied more than two-thirds of its oil needs in the mid-1980s by domestic production, began to increase its imports due to widespread adoption of gas guzzling vehicles combined with weakening domestic production. By 2007, the US imported 66% of the oil it consumed annually. Since then, imports have decreased due to improved fuel economy and increased domestic production

Why are energy resources considered the most essential of all natural resources? What is the relationship between energy consumption and industrial production? Briefly describe historical energy consumption patterns in the US.

-Energy is the most essential of all natural resources because we use energy to make all other resources available, without the energy resources, all other natural resources would remain in place, unable to be mined, processed, and distributed -Energy consumption goes hand in hand with industrial production and increases in per capita income. The greater the level of energy consumption, the higher the gross national income per capita. As people grow richer, they want better things- which means a large increase in the global demand for energy and industrial raw materials -Preagricultural societies depended chiefly on the energy stored in wild plants and animals for food, although people developed certain tools and customs to exploit the energy base. Sedentary agricultural developed the technology to harness increasing amounts of energy. It was the shift from renewable resources to those derived from nonrenewable minerals, chiefly fossil fuels, that sparked the Industrial Revolution

What vital ecological functions do forests perform? Where are the tropical rain forests located, and what concerns are raised by their destruction?

-Functions of forests: Soil and watershed conservation, the provision of a habitat for wildlife, and recreation. Forests also play a vital role in the global recycling of water, carbon, and oxygen -The tropical rain forests extend across parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. -Concerns: First, all forests play a major role in maintaining the oxygen and carbon balance of the earth. Second, the contribution of forest clearing to air pollution and climate change. Finally, the eradication of tropical forests is already leading to the loss of a major part of the biological diversity of the planet

What, in general, are the leading mining countries? What role do developing countries play in the production of critical raw materials? How have producing countries reacted to the threatened scarcity of copper?

-Leading mining countries are India, Brazil, and South Africa -Role of developing countries: Extensive deposits of cobalt and diamonds are largely confined to Russia and central-southern Africa. South Africa has nearly one-half of the world's gold ore and more than three-quarters of the chromium and platinum-group metals. Some countries contain only one or two exploitable minerals- Morocco has phosphate and New Caledonia has nickel -Scarcity of copper: In the US, the grade of mined ores has decreased steadily. The recovery of copper by recycling has increased. Price rises have spurred the search for substitutes

What are the different methods of generating nuclear energy? Why is there public opposition to nuclear power?

-Nuclear fission: The controlled splitting of an atom to release energy -Nuclear fusion: The combining of two atoms of deuterium into a single atom of helium in order to release energy -The high costs of constructing, licensing, and operating the plants made nuclear power more expensive than energy derived from other sources. Other commentators, pointing to the dangers inherent in any system dependent on the use of radioactive fuels, argue that nuclear power poses technological, political, social, and environmental problems for which society has no solutions

Which are the most widely employed ways of using renewable resources to generate energy? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using such resources? What sorts of physical environments and locations are best suited to each of the renewable energy sources?

-The most widely employed ways of using renewable resources to generate energy include biomass fuels, hydro power, and solar energy -Environment for biomass fuels: Ethiopia and Bangladesh -Advantages of biomass fuels: can be transformed into fuel in many ways -Disadvantages of biomass fuels: Corn takes a lot of land to grow, rise in prices for corn encourages farmers to plant significantly more -Environment for hydro power: Regions with mountains and high precipitation -Advantages of hydro power: Supplying electrical power, dams provide flood protection, irrigation water, and recreational opportunities -Disadvantages of hydro power: Dams can block fish migration. Flooding valleys for water storage submerges forests, farmlands, and villages, sometimes resulting in the displacement of tens of thousands or even millions of people. The reservoirs flood natural wetlands and river habitats, alter stream-flow patterns, and trap silt that otherwise would flow downstream to be deposited on agricultural lands, leading to long term declines in soil fertility -Environment for solar energy: Warm and sunny climates with not too much cloud cover and not too many hours of darkness in winter -Advantages for solar energy: Satisfies a proportion of future energy needs with minimal environmental damage and maximum conservation of earth resources Disadvantages for solar energy: Being diffuse, it must be collected over a large area to make it practical to use, and because it is intermittent, it requires some means of storage

What are some types of wetlands? Why are they important, and why have so many disappeared?

-The two major categories of wetlands are inland and coastal -Wetlands are important because they trap and filter silt, pollutants, and nutrients that rivers bring downstream. Wetlands improve water quality and help replenish underground aquifers. Among the most diverse and productive of all ecosystems, wetlands provide habitat and food for a variety of plants and animals -Wetlands have disappeared because they have been drained, dredged, filled, built upon, converted to cropland, and used as garbage dumps

Biomass fuel

Any organic material produced by plants, animals, or microorganisms that can be burned directly as a heat source or converted into a liquid or gas

Sustainable development

Development that satisfies current needs without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Geothermal energy

Energy that is generated by harnessing the naturally occurring steam and hot water produced by contact with heated rocks in the earth's crust

Oil shale

Fine-grained sedimentary rock rich in organic material called kerogen

Desertification

The expansion or intensification of areas of degraded or destroyed soil and vegetation cover; it usually occurs in arid and semiarid environments

Conservation

The careful use of resources so that future generations can obtain as many benefits from them as we now enjoy

Nuclear fusion

The combining of two atoms of deuterium into a single atom of helium in order to release energy

Salinization

The concentration of salts in the topsoil as a result of the evaporation of surface water

Nuclear fission

The controlled splitting of an atom to release energy