Chapter 12: The Sections Go Their Ways

What percentage of manufactured goods came from the South by 1860? Was there still any dependence on the North?

Less than 15% of all goods manufactured in United States came from the South

How had rapid industrialization influence the American way of life?

New machinery weakened the bargaining power of skilled workers by making their skills less important. Immigration, capital investment from Europe, improvements in transportation, population growth, and the absence of internal tariff barriers also helped stimulate industry and expand the national market for manufactured goods

Why did slavery caused " basically decent people to commit countless petty cruelty"?

People took out their anger on their slaves as they were not human but just a piece of property.

What is difficult to generalize about the treatment of slaves? How were some slaves treated? Others?

Planters purchased fine clothes, furniture and china, as well as other manufactured goods Plantations were also busy centers of household manufacture Clothes for slaves (except shoes) Everyday clothing for their own children Bedding and other textiles Spinning, weaving, and sewing were women's work Food was raised on the plantation except for coffee, tea, and a few other items

What did different parts of this area of the United States produce? What methods had farmers used to improve the growth of these crops?

Region was predominantly agricultural and cotton was king By 1859: 1.3 million out of 4.3 million bales were grown beyond the Mississippi Upper South Virginia was leading tobacco producer but states beyond the Appalachians were raising more than half the crop, encouraged by the introduction of 'Bright Yellow' Older sections of Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina shifted to the type of diversified farming associated with Northeast At time of Washington and Jefferson, progressive Virginia planters had experimented with crop rotation and fertilizers In mid-nineteenth century, Edmund Ruffin introduced the use of marl to counteract acidity of worn-out tobacco fields Combined with fertilizers, proper drainage and plowing methods, doubled and even tripled the yield of corn and wheat In 1840s southern planters experimented with a variety of fertilizers, plowing techniques and livestock breeds

Why did slavery flourish never in urban settings?

Slavery did not flourish in urban settings and cities did not flourish where slavery was important Southern cities were small Slave labor minor since harder to control in urban setting

What was the impact of slavery on the personalities of Southerners?

Slavery had a corrosive effect on the personalities of southerners, black and white Bore heavily on all slaves' sense of self worth Most slaves appeared resigned to their fate Slaves had strong family and group attachments and a complex culture of their own By a mixture of subterfuge, accommodation, and passive resistance, slaves erected defenses against exploitation, achieving a sense of community that helped sustain the psychic integrity of the individuals Slavery discouraged, if not extinguished, independent judgment and self-reliance

What was the life of the slave like? What did whites think slaves viewed slavery? What might explain these stereotypes?

Slaves had no rights Marriages had no legal status though partnerships appear to have been loving and stable Slave religion mixture of African traditions and Christianity Religious meetings provided slaves with the opportunity to organize Sustained sense of own worth

In what ways were slaves able to maintain a sense of community

Slaves had strong family and group attachments and a complex culture of their own By a mixture of subterfuge, accommodation, and passive resistance, slaves erected defenses against exploitation, achieving a sense of community that helped sustain the psychic integrity of the individuals Slavery discouraged, if not extinguished, independent judgment and self-reliance

Who was Denmark Vesey?

1822: after conspiracy of Denmark Vesey was exposed, 37 slaves executed and 30 deported though no overt act had occurred Louisiana: 16 slaves were decapitated after an uprising

What was the first railroad? What slowed the construction of railroad lines? Did railroads and canals compete with one another?

1830 Baltimore & Ohio, first American line, carried 80,000 passengers over 13 mile stretch of track. By 1833: Charleston, South Carolina, had a line reaching 136 miles. By 1840: the U.S. had 3,328 miles of track—equal to canal mileage and double the railroad mileage of Europe. Early railroad did not compete with canals because Did not generally cross Appalachians, Were not organized into systems, and Often used different track widths.

Discuss canal expansion during this time period.

America's internal trade increased and shifted directions. The Erie Canal heralded the origins of a significant east-west trade. Railroads did not at first compete with canal traffic; they were originally designed to handle only local trade. Engineering and technical problems, and America's tough terrain, at first inhibited the construction of long-distance lines.

By 1850, how had the perception of the corporation changed in American society?

Americans realized that corporations were corrupt and had too much power over the average, middle class citizens.

What happened to the concentration of slaves as the price of them went up? How many southerners truly owned slaves?

As slaves became more expensive, ownership of slaves became more concentrated In 1860 only about 46,000 of 8 million white residents of slave states had as many as 20 slaves

accounted for industrial advancement?

Aside from inventions, what else accounted for industrial advancement? Industry grew rapidly in the North. There, steam power was critical to the expansion of the factory system, and industry was remarkably receptive to technological change. In the United States, individual freedom encouraged resourcefulness and experimentation, business growth encouraged new techniques, and the shortage of skilled labor encouraged the substitution of machinery. America's industrial revolution also rested on a growing availability of a seemingly inexhaustible supply of natural resources.

What was significant about the time period from mid-1840s and the mid-1850s?

Between 1845 and 1857 every economic indicator expressed the remarkable growth of the American economy. This growth caused some problems, eventually leading to the Panic of 1857.

How had shipbuilding changed during this time period? Steamships?

By the late 1840s, steamships had captured much of the Atlantic freight and passenger traffic. These British-built vessels, stronger and larger than wooden sailing ships, challenged America's shipbuilding industry. Competition, government subsidies, and new technology reduced trans-Atlantic shipping rates. Bargain rates in steerage enabled tens of thousands of European immigrants to come to the United States.

How had effective shipbuilding made an impact on immigration?

Effective shipbuilding had a large impact on the rate in which immigration could occur. With more and more ships being produced, the easier it was for an immigrant to find a ship to take over to a new country. This also met that the prices to emigrate

What were the effects of railroad construction on America? Agriculture? Cities? Economic activity?

Farmers were profoundly affected by the railroads. Location of the lines helped determine what land could be profitably cultivated. Cities were also affected by the railroads. Chicago became the railroad center of the Midwest. Railroads also stimulated other kinds of economic activity. They influenced real estate values, spurred regional concentration of industry, increased the size of business units, and stimulated the growth of investment banking. Railroads also revolutionized business organization and management, and they sharply reduced freight and passenger rates. Finally, railroads revolutionized western agriculture; the center of commercial wheat production moved to the Midwest.

How had internal commerce changed during this time period?

Foreign commerce grew dramatically in the 1840s and 1850s. The United States mostly exported raw materials (cotton was the most valuable export), and it usually imported more (mostly manufactured goods) than it exported.

What were the changes in the patterns of foreign commerce? What was the focus for the U.S. in imports? Exports?

Foreign commerce grew dramatically in the 1840s and 1850s. The United States mostly exported raw materials (cotton was the most valuable export), and it usually imported more (mostly manufactured goods) than it exported.

In what way did capitalists want to make money from the railroad?

Frequently capitalists more interested in making money from railroad construction than from operation. They would earn the money made off of interstate travel or rail travel in general, not as much doing it for the good of the country to expand means of transportation.

Who was Erastus Corning?

He was an American businessman and politician. Erastus Corning's most lasting contribution to history may have been his dealings with railroads. As an iron dealer, he very quickly saw the potential that railroads had as an economic engine as both a consumer and distributor of his products, and took an interest from the very start. When the Utica and Schenectady Railroad was chartered in 1833, Corning got himself a seat on the board and became a major investor, and was soon president of the road.

What was the most obvious change in the North in the decades before the Civil War? Give evidence to this change.

Immediately after War of 1812 the United States was manufacturing less than $200 million worth of goods annually In 1859 northeastern states alone produced $1.27 billion of national total of almost $2 billion Factory system made great strides Development of anthracite coal mine fields in Pennsylvania

What was life like for immigrants? Living conditions? Cities/Industrial town where they lived?

Immigrants and factory workers often lived in crowded slums in industrial cities, where life was dirty and dangerous. Low wages meant wives and children of most factory workers also had to work to help the family survive. Nevertheless, most skilled workers improved their lot somewhat.

Describe Commonwealth v. Hunt.

In Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842), the Massachusetts courts established the legality of labor unions, and other state courts followed this precedent. Still, before 1860 most labor unions were small and local. Laborers rarely thought of themselves as members of a permanent working class.

What happened to the price of slaves from 1820 to 1850? Why had this changed? How had the " crop value per slave" changed?

Increased importance of cotton strengthened the hold of slavery on the region Price of slaves rose 1850's: prime field hand was worth 3x as much as in 1820 (as much as $1,800) Crop value per slave jumped from less than $15 early in century to more than $125 in 1859

How had unskilled immigrants caused serious disruptions of economic patterns?

Industrial expansion created jobs that attracted thousands of immigrants to come to the United States. By 1860, Irish immigrants, who seemed a more permanent and pliable work force, had largely replaced the young farmwomen who worked in New England's textile mills.

How did industrial growth led to the demand for labor? What were the effects?

Industrial growth increased the demand for labor, but the expanding western frontier drained off many eastern laborers and artisans who would not work for low wages in industry.

What impact did the industrial worker have on their own fate?

Industrial workers had a hard time getting out of hard industrial labor. They could ascend to a certain point, but after having the top position, they could not go anywhere else.

What was the paradox that the authors of the text describe about life in America during this time period? How did the middle class react to this paradox?

Industrialization and the immigration of poor workers made American society more stratified and widened the differences in wealth and status. Middle class citizens were indifferent when they hear the paradox.

In what different directions did manufacturing expand?

It expanded in so many different areas

How much of a role did public or government aid have in the expansion of the railroads?

Longer east-west rail lines usually required some public funding. State and local aid came in the form of loans, investments, and tax exemptions. The federal government helped by granting federal lands to states to build railroads. Often, construction of the railroads

Generally, what was the Southern plantation life like? Describe everything from the role of the wife and master of the plantation to they way slaves lived.

Medium to large operation employing 20 or more slaves Master's house with complement of barns and stables Kitchen Smokehouse Washhouse Home for the overseer Schoolhouse, perhaps Grist mill Forge Slave quarters Husbands and wives did not function in separate spheres though functions were different and gender related Master was in charge—system paternalistic Wife had immense responsibilities Supervising servants Nursing the sick Taking care of vegetable and flower gardens Planning meals Seeing to the education of her own children and training of young slaves Generally married in their teens so had to learn by doing

How well did small farmers fair in the Southern part of the United States? What were their lives like?

Most efficient size of plantation worked by gangs of slaves was 1,000 to 2,000 acres Majority of farmers in south cultivated no more than 200 acres Many cultivated fewer than 100 acres On eve of Civil War only one family in four owned any slaves at all Yeoman farmers: grew staple crops, owned a few slaves, worked besides them in the fields—hardworking, self-reliant, and moderately prosperous "Poor white trash" of pine barrens and remote valleys of Appalachians scratched a meager subsistence from substandard soils and lived in ignorance and squalor

What responsibilities did owners feel towards their slaves? Was this always the case? Explain.

Most owners felt responsibilities toward their slaves and slaves were imitative of white values Powerful fears existed on both side

What type of industrial unions were there for workers? Give an example? Who did they tend to represent? How effective were they during bad economic times? Good times? What changes were workers able to make?

Most workers did not belong to unions. Early unions and workingmen's political parties were virtually destroyed by internal bickering and the depression of the late 1830s. Nevertheless, in the 1840s and 1850s many states passed laws that both limited the workday to ten hours and regulated child labor. They were more effective in a good economy rather than a bad one.

Discuss the Nat Turner revolt? What happened in the South as a result of revolt?

Nat Turner uprising in Virginia in 1831 cost 57 whites their lives White southerners treated runaways almost as brutally as rebels After Nat Turner revolt, interest in abolishing slavery vanished in white South Southern states made it increasingly difficult for masters to free slaves During 1859 only about 3,000 were given their freedom (.00075 percent)

Why didn't southerners improve their state of affairs?

Nearly everyone in New England could read and write while over 20% of white Southerners could not

What other factors simulated growth of manufacturing?

New inventions simulated growth of manufacturing. While factories had to evolve to make new products, they also developed new machinery to make these items.

What impact did these changes have on the social stratification of society? In what ways did Americans now feel they could be upwardly mobile?

Republican values, a high rate of social and geographic mobility, and the availability of immigrant, women, and child workers, made labor organization difficult.

Discuss how the "native" Americans looked down on immigrants? Give specific examples.

Resident "native" Americans tended to look down on these immigrants, and natives and immigrants shared a prejudice toward blacks. Many stores would refuse to sell food to the Irish and nobody would employ them.

What were sailing packets? How successful were they?

Sailing packets were groups of people who were sent to sea in order to transport immigrants. They were highly successful as well as popular in this time period, although the conditions of the trips were poor.

Who worked on the railroads? Who financed the railroads?

Slave labor built the South's railroads; immigrants built the North's. Private investors supplied most of the investment capital, particularly when their communities stood to profit from the railroad. Longer east-west rail lines usually required some public funding. State and local aid came in the form of loans, investments, and tax exemptions.

How had slave trading changed? How did the slave trade impact the slaves themselves? Who were the slave traders?

Slave trading became big business 1850s: about 50 dealers in Charleston and 200 in New Orleans Impact on slaves was disastrous Husbands and wives, parent and children were separated One study suggests one-third of all first "slave" marriages in upper South were broken by forced separation Nearly half of all children were separated from at least one parent

How had the slave population changed in the deep South? How significant was this movement?

Slaves in Deep South brought several hundred dollars more per head than in the older regions Mississippi took in 10,000 slaves a year By 1830: black population in Mississippi exceeded white Transfer of more than a million slaves from seaboard states to West

What happened to manufacturing in the South? What elements allowed this to take place?

Small flour and lumber mills flourished Rope making plants in Kentucky Commercial cotton presses existed in a number of southern cities Iron and coal were mined in Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee 1850s: Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond did an annual business of about $1 million

Why did the South fail to develop locally owned marketing and transportation facilities?

South failed to develop locally owned marketing and transportation facilities 1840: $2.85 to move a bale of cotton from farm to seaport Additional charges for storage, insurance, port fees, and freight to a European port exceeded $15 Most of this money earned by middlemen outside of South Middlemen also supplied most of foreign goods purchased by planters

What part of the country was less affected than other sections of the country by urbanization, European immigration, the transportation revolution, and industrialization?

South less affected by urbanization, European immigration, transportation revolution, and industrialization

How did Southerners feel about freed men? How did Southerners treat freed men?

Southern whites considered existence of free blacks undesirable Undercut notion that blacks are helpless on their own Set bad example for slaves Many southern states passed laws aimed at forcing free blacks to emigrate but these were not well enforced

What did the South lose by enslaving African Americans?

Southerners "lost" the opportunities that the African Americans could have brought to the country. Slave artisans worked on plantations, and a few free blacks made their way in the South remarkably well, but the enormous reservoir of intelligence and skill that the blacks represented was cruelly wasted.

How did the North receive technology? Give specific examples of the innovations. How did these innovations impact society? How did the world perceive these changes?

The North received technology from various inventors both "native" and immigrants. Some examples are steam engines and steamboats. These greatly impacted transportation around the country. They changed the world and allowed goods and information to arrive faster.

Discuss the Panic of 1857.

The Panic of 1857 was a serious though short-lived collapse that was especially hard on the Northwest. The South, however, was affected very little by the Panic, and this encouraged many southerners to believe they had a superior economic system and might be better off out of the Union.

What impact did the linking of East and West have on politics?

The linking of the East and West had fateful effects in politics. The increasing movement of goods and people by railroads and canals stimulated nationalism in the Northeast and Northwest. With the Northwest no longer dependent on the Mississippi River trade route, its citizens could afford to oppose slavery and its westward expansion. The anticommercial attitudes of southern leaders, together with its scattered population, absence of large cities, and stubborn reliance on the Mississippi River, prevented the South from keeping pace with northern railroad construction.

How frequently did incidents happen like those that took place with Denmark Vesey? Why?

They were rare because many seemed to accept the whites' evaluation of their inherent abilities and place in society.

What is unique about the growth of the slave population in the United States?

U.S. only country in western hemisphere where slave population grew by natural increase After ending of slave trade in 1808, black population grew at nearly same rate as white From founding of Jamestown to Civil War, only slightly more than 500,000 slaves were imported (5 percent of slaves carried to New World) yet in 1860 there were 4 million blacks in U.S.

How successful were well-managed plantations? How much did a slave "earn"? How much did it cost to care for a slave?

Well managed plantations yielded annual profits of 10 percent or more Money invested in southern agriculture earned at least moderate return After allowing for the cost of land and capital, average plantation slave "earned" cotton worth $78.78 in 1859 $32 a year to feed, clothe and house a slave 60% of product of slave labor was expropriated by the masters

Discuss whaling in America during this time period. Why was it important to America?

Whaling boomed between 1830 and 1860. By mid 1850s sperm oil sold at more than 1.75 a gallon. Country exported an average of 2.7 million dollars worth of whale oil and whale bone. New Bedford boasted a whaling fleet of 300 vessels and population of 25000.

How had railroads impacted the western frontier? Southern farmer?

While they helped boost the western farm family's income and standard of living, railroads also broke down their isolation and self-sufficiency. This commercialization of agriculture meant that western farmers became more dependent on middlemen to market their crop. Overproduction also became a problem, and it became increasingly more costly to start and operate a farm.

What impact did slavery have on whites?

Whites were also harmed by slavery Associating working for others with servility discouraged many poor white Southerners from hiring out to make a stake Slavery provided the weak, shiftless, and unsuccessful with a scapegoat that made their own situation easier to bear but harder to escape Patriarchal nature of slave system reinforced tendency toward male dominance over wives and children Power of ownership could be brutalizing

Who was William Gregg?

William Gregg's factory at Graniteville, South Carolina, established 1846, was employing 300 people by 1850