Chapter 17
Shift in pay structure does not affect all industries _____.
equally
____ employment is more heavily concentrated in small firms.
female
____ or ______ bonuses have never needed to be included, because they are at the employer's discretion rather than a pay form promised to employees if certain conditions are met
gifts; speical-occasion
______ local levels that provides a min wage tailor to living costs in an area.
living wage
There is also evidence that gender differences in ________ and ________ continues to exist.
occupational choices; preferences
Enforcement priorities and intensity can vary from _____________.
one presidential administration to the next
If they are required to stay on the employer's _______ while on call, then they must bee compensated for that time.
premises
_________ set pay for work done to produce goods and services contracted by the federal government
prevailing wage laws
The ____ sector faces little competition for its services and is frequently better able to absorb a wage increase because public employees are in a better position than taxpayers to pressure lawmakers.
public
_____ outsourcing means more government jobs, which generally translates into more union members.
reduced
laws aimed at protecting specific groups also tend to ___ those groups' participation in the labor market.
restrict
Level of _____ and _________ appear to the primary sources of the pay gaps among block and hispanic men and women.
schooling; work-related experience
Equal work standard required only that jobs be _______ equal, not identical
substantially
________ does not constitute dissimilar working conditions. However, if a differential for working at night is paid, it must be separated from the bas wage for the job.
time of day
An important reason for the decline in those directly affected is that the federal min wage stayed _____.
unchanged
Mere possession of a qualification or skill does not mean it is ______.
work-related
the ____ and _____ issued by governmental agencies created to enforce the laws are a significant influence on compensation decisions throughout the world.
laws; regulations
In addition to being an employer, government affects labor supply through _________.
legislation
The ____ branch (congress) passes laws (or statues)
legislative
One objective of the FLSA is to share available work by making the hiring of additional workers a ________ option Thant the scheduling of overtime for current employees.
less costly
The lowest rates paid in the software, chemical, oil and pharmaceutical industries are already well above min; any legislative change has__________________.
little direct impact on theem
Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA):
Financial institutions receiving funds from TARP have restrictions on cempsation. Prohibits use of several compensation programs, including but no limited to bonuses, retention awards, and incentive pay, except where part of a preexisting employment contract, during the period TARP funds are received. Restricted stock is permitted if one-third or less of annual compensation. In firms receiving the largest TARP assistance, restrictions cover senior executives and next 20 highest paid employees.
Fair Labor Standards Act -FLSA (1938):
Sets minimum wage, hours of work, overtime premiums; prohibits child labor
Worker Economic Opportunity Act (2000):
Income from most stock plans need not be included in calculating overtime pay
Civil Rights Act of 1991:
Increases burden of proof on employers to rebut some discrimination claims. Stronger remedies available in cases of international discrimination.
A recent International Labour Organization report finds that globally, child labor is dealing, particularly in _____.
Latin America
_____ requirements for certain occupations restrict the number of people who can legally offer a service.
Licensing
______________ forbids wages discrimination on the basis of gender if employees perform equal work in the same establishment. Jobs are considered equal if they require equal skill, effort, and responsibility and are performed under similar working conditions.
The equal pay act of 1963
_______ of the acts prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex, race, color, religion, or national origin in any employment conditions including hiring, firing, promotion, transfer, compensation and admission to training programs.
Title VII
Differences in the firm's _______ with in a specific industry is another factor that accounts for some of the earnings gap.
compensation policies
_____ and ______ are still continuing compensation objectives.
compliance; fairness
When the state laws differ from the federal FLSA, and employer must_______________________.
comply with the standard most protective to employees
Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act changed the filing date from 180/300 day period for filing law suits to ________________.
each time a discriminatory paycheck is issued, regardless of when the discrimination started
Since the 1990s, the gap at the top narrowed slightly, due to _____________________. the gap at the bottom narrowed more, mostly due to ______________________________________.
education gains by women; increases in overall years worked and years worked with current employer by women
____, along with other ____, attempt to influence the form any legislation will take
employers; stakeholders
The impact of FLSA and other laws depends importantly on the degree to which they are ________.
enforced
The proposed definition of pay discrimination hinges on the standard of _______________ (also called pay equity or gender pay equity). Existing federal laws in the US do not support this standard.
equal pay for work of comparable worth
The ____ branch, headed by the President, enforces laws through agencies and its other bodies.
executive
Governments' usual interest in compensation decisions are whether procedures for determining pay are ____, safety nets for the __________, and ______.
fair; safety nets for the unemployed and.or those unable to work; worker protection
To comply with the Prevailing wage law, contractors must determine the "_________" for constructions labor in an area. As a practical matter, the union rate for labor becomes the going rate. Then the rate becomes the mandated minimum wage on the government-financed project.
going rate
A ____________ is the minimum wage that must be paid for work done on covered government projects or purchases.
governemnt-defiend prevailing wage
The wage gap between men and women varies according to wage level, being relatively large at very ____ wages and even larger at very ___ wage levels.
high; low
____ men are concentrated in construction and. service firms
hispanic
increased business activity translates into ________________.
increased demand for labor and upward pressure on wages
In the case of a worker who is an _____ rather than an employee, the employer is not obligated to pay the legally required benefits.
independent contractor
The ___________ and ______________ also prohibit discrimination based on age and disability, respectively.
Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA); Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
State and Local Laws:
Examples: Minimum wage, classification of workers as employees or independent contractors, prohibition against asking applicant salary history
Mental Health Act (1997):
Mental illness must be covered to same extent that other medical conditions are covered
Compliance with _____ is typically a key concern when companies use workforce reduction programs. The ADEA pertains not only to age-related differences in pay and employment outcomes, but in addition, it was amended to include Order Workers benefit protection act.
ADEA
A class action lawsuit is....
"any civil case in which parties indicated their intent to sue on behalf of themselves as well as others not specifically named in the suit at some point prior to the final resolution of the matter"
Another challenge in compliance is that:
"in an evolving, always-on workplace where employees routinely put in extra Horus and shoot off emails late at night from mobile devices, when the workdays begins and ends has become an issue for employees"
Steps for establishing a comparable-worth plan:
1. adopt a single "gender neutral" point job evaluation plan for all jobs within a unit 2. all jobs with equal job evaluation results hosed be paid the same 3. identify the percentages of male and female employees in each job group 4. the wage-to job evaluation point ratio should bas on the wages paid for male-dominated jobs since they are presumed to be the bst estimate of nondiscriminatory wages
Contemporary employers face:
1. an increasingly skilled workforce with higher training costs per employee 2. higher benefit costs, the bulk of which are fixed per employee *these factors have lowered the break-even point at which ini pays employers to schedule longer hours and pay the overtime premium, rather than hire, train, and pay benefits for more employees
How can a compensation manager best undertake these efforts?
1. join professional associations to stay informed on emerging issues and to act in concert to inform and influence public and legislative opinion 2. constantly review compensation practices and their results. be sure to consul with legal counsel in doing so, as attorney-client privilege and protection of work product are important issues to understand prior to conducting analysis on an organisation's compliance 3 treatment of all employees is the goal of a good pay system and same goal for legislation 4. when interpretations of what is fair treatment differ, informed public discussion is required - such discussion cannot occur without the input of informed managers
Steps in the OFCCP's compliance review process:
1. selection of contractors based - on a mathematical model --> called the Federal Contractor Selection System: which is intended to predict the likelihood that contractors is engaging in systemic discrimination 2. once selected the first step is a desk audit --> notifies employer and will ask them to provide complete information on its affirmative action program and all supporting personnel activity and compensation data within 30 days 3. If you are okay then they issue a closure letter if not, there will delve deeper into statistical analyses of data and also conduct interviews with management and non management employees for "anecdotal evidence" to consider along with statistical evidence 4. if there is discrimination there will be a Notice of Violation --> employer will need to stop discrimination --> if no agreement then contact Office of the Solicitor
________________ legislation specifies the number of breaks that must be provided in an eight-hour weekday.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
________ laws have narrower coverage than min wage laws, as they cover only city (or state) employees and/or employers that do business with the city
living wage
valuation discrimination:
looks at the pay women and minorities receive for the jobs they perform - recognized interpretation of discrimination
working conditions:
the physical surroundings and hazards of a job, including dimensions such as inside versus outside work, heat, cold and poor ventilation
Prevailing-wage laws prevent contractors from using their size to _______________.
drive down wages
The _____ the class, the ____ the potential cost to the employer.
bigger; bigger
Clear directions to interpret the Equal Pay Act:
-the design of pay systems must incorporate a policy of equal pay for substantially equal work -the determination of substantially equal work must be based on the actual work performed (the job content) and must reflect the skill, effort, responsibility, and working conditions involved -it is legal to pay men and women who perform substantially equal work differently ini the pay system is designed to recognize differences in performance, seniority, quality and quantity of results or certain factors tother than sex in a nondiscriminatory manner. -if a new system is designed, it must be applied to all employees
Reasons for wage gaps?
-work/occupation differences -work-related behavior -labor market conditions -firm/industry differences -union differences -discrimination
The FLSA's major provisions are:
1. Minimum wage 2. Hours of work (including overtime) 3. Child labor -an additional provision requires that records be kept of employees, their hours worked, and their pay
Court cases have established two theories of discrimination behavior under Title VII:
1. disparate treatment 2. disparate impact
Generally persons under ____ cannot work in hazardous jobs such as meat packing and logging; persons under ___ cannot bee employed in jobs involving interstate commerce except for nonhazardous work for a parent or guardian.
18; 16
Employees in some jobs can get a pay increase about ___ percent simply by switching industries in the. same geographic area while performing basically similar jobs. Nevertheless, a recent study concludes that this pay. premium associated with change jobs enjoyed primarily by white imales. Women and minorities who are MBA graduates from five universities did not obtain the same pay increases as their white male classmates when they switched jobs.
20
Securities and Exchange Commission 9SEC) rule change on executive compensation disclosure (2006):
Adopts enhances executive compensation disclosure requirements. For example, the compensation discussion and analysis in the proxy statement must address the objectives and implementation of executive compensation programs.
_____ and ____, where half the children in Latin America live, have made the greater strikes, which the study attributed to increased political will, awareness, poverty reduction and education.
Brazil; Mexico
Securities Exchange Act (1934):
Created the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Currently, the SEC requires companies that have more than $10 million in assets and whose securities are publicly traded and held by more than 500 owners to periodically report information, which is avialbel to the public. This includes disclosure of compensation received by the CEO, CFO, and three other highest paid executives
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (2010):
Creates employer mandate (for those with 50 or more employees) to provide qualifying health insurance coverage face finical penalties.
Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act (2009):
Employers can be liable for current pay differences that are a result of discrimination (as defined under existing laws such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act) that occurred many years earlier.
Federal Trade Commission:
Enforces antitrust laws, which includes prohibiting employers from collusion in fixing prices in compensation or collusion ini the form of agreeing not to recruit each other's employees.
Disparate Impact:
Practices that have a differential effect on meters of protected groups are illegal, unless the differences are work-related. under disparate impact, whether or not the employer intended to discriminate is irrelevant.
Pregnancy Discrimination Act - PDA (1978):
Pregnancy must be covered to same extent that other medical conditions are covered.
Title VII of Civil Rights Act of 1964:
Prohibits discrimination in all employment practices on basis of race, sex, color, religion, or national origin
Executive Order 11246 (1965):
Prohibits discrimination of federal contractors and subcontractors in all employment practices on basis of race, color, religion or national origin
Executive Order 13665 (2014):
Prohibits federal contractors and subcontractors from having pay secrecy policies
Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) 1967:
Protects employees age 40 and over again age discrimination
Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) :
Requires employers to provide up to 12 weeks' unpaid leave for family and medical emergencies
Americans with Disabilities Act - ADA (1990):
Requires that "essential elements" of a job be called out. If a person with a disability can perform these essential elements, reasonable accommodation must be provided.
Davis- Bacon Act (1931):
Requires that mechanics and laborers on public construction projects be paid the "prevailing wage in an area"
Internal Revenue Services (IRS):
Tax treatment of employee and executive compensation, including rules for which compensation costs can be deducted. Also monitors employer decisions to classify workers as employees vs independent contractors (which has tax revenue implications)
Department of Labor (DOL)
The DOL's Wage and Hour Division (WHD) mentors and enforces compliance with the FLSA, FMLA< Davis-Bacon, Walsh-Healtley, and other Acts. The DOL's Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) monitors and enforces compliance with equal employment opportunity laws, including Title VII of the Civil Right s Act, ADA, ADEA< PDA, and Equal Pact Act. The DOL's Office of Federal Contract Compliance (OFCCP) monitors and enforces compliance with equal employment opportunity laws, primarily Executive Order 11246, which applies to companies that do business (Federal contractors and subcontractors) with the federal government.
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) Statement 123 R (2004):
Value of all employee stock options must be expenses at estimates of fair value on financial statements (as/wehn they vest)
Disparate Treatment:
When there are different standards to different employees
The _____________, a 2000 amendment to FLSA, allows stock options and bonuses to be exempt from inclusion in overtime pay calculations.
Worker Economic Opportunity Act
living wages cover only ____ wages, but more frequently they require health insurance, vacations, sick pay, job security, and provide incentives to unionize.
base
Telecommunications and software services personnel who must respond quickly to problems outside their regularly scheduled workday are newer categories of employees eligible for "_______".
beeper pay
the two general classification criteria for determining employee or independent contractor are:
behavioral; financial control
Differences in qualifications, especially educational levels and work-related experience as well as differences in occupations, are important sources of gaps for both _____ and _____ compared to white men.
blacks; Hispanics
some call for organizations and the government to act in concert to ___________________.
carry out a public policy that protects the interests of employees
A key issue in class actions is the definition of the _____.
class
Noncompete Agreements:
many employers ask employees to agree not to work for a competitor within a certain time of leaving the employer. Consideration must be provided to the employee in return for waiving this right. Enforceability varies by state and typically as a function of the level of the employee and the degree to which the employee has access to valuable information or resource related to competitveness
The amount of union support for comparable worth appears to be related to its effects on the union's _______.
memberships
legislative process begins when a problem is identified and corrective legislation is ______. If there are enough support that develops, often as.a result of compromise and trade-offs the proposed legislation becomes law.
proposed
Differences in pay between mean and women doing equal work are legal if these differences are based on any one of the four critter, called an affirmative defense (equal pay act):
1. seniority 2. merit or quality of performance 3. quality of quantity of production 4. some factor other than sex
For an employer to support a claim of unequal work, the following conditions must be met:
1. the effort/skill/responsibility must be substantially greater in one of the jobs compared 2. the tasks involving the extra effort/skill responsibility must consume a significant amount of time for all employees whose additional wages are in question 3. the extra effort/skill/responsbility must have a value commensurate with the questioned pay differential (as determined by the employer's own evaluation)
The main prevailing -wage laws include the _______, ________, ________, and the ______.
Davis-Bacon Act; Walsh-Healey Public Contracts Act; Service Contract Act; National Foundation for the Arts and Humanities Act
Financial Accounting standards Board (FASB):
Engages in ongoing rule-making regarding accounting treatment of executive and employee compensation. FASB rules are given great deference by the SEC.
Equal Pay Act (1963):
Equal pay required for men and women doing "substantially similar" work in terms of skill, effort, responsibility, and working conditions
_______ prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It requires covered government contractors to file affirmative action plans, which have three parts. 1. utilization analysis compares the contractor's workforce to the available external workforce. underutilization exists if a group represents significantly smaller percentage of the employer's workforce than o the external workforce 2. goals and timetables are developed for achieving affirmative action 3. action steps are developed for achieving this goals and timetables
Executive Order 11246
SEC:
Executive compensation rules and enforcement
Sarbanes-Oxley Act (2002):
Executives cannot retain bonuses or profits from selling company stock if they mislead the public about the financial health of the company
Skill:
Experience, training, education, and ability as measured by the performance requirements of a particular job
Walsh-Healey Public Contracts Act (1936):
Extends prevailing-wage concept to manufactures or suppliers of goods for government contracts
Living wage provisions are not part of the ____.
FLSA
The ___________ covers all employees (with some exceptions) of companies engaged in interstate commerce or in the production of goods for interstate commerce.
Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938
the law recognizes two types of discrimination:
access discrimination and valuation discrimination
In several cases where the duties employees actually performed were different from those in the job descriptions, the courts held that the _________ must be used to decide whether jobs are substantially equal
actual work performed
A relatively small wage gap among younger cohorts tends to increase as the cohort ___.
ages
Employers prefer _____ because it is faster and cheaper, especially so if it can be used in lieu of costly class action litigation.
arbitration
Retailing and hospitality firms tend to pay _____ or ________ min wage to many clerks, sales persons, and cleaning people
at; near
Evidence of increased levels of occupational attainment doe snot automatically mean that the wage gap will _____.
close
Some others believe that the best opportunities for employees are created by the _________ and _______ that is inherent in market-based economies; the economy out to be allowed to adapt and transform, undistorted by government actions.
constant change; reconfigurating
Compliance with laws and regulations can be a _______________ for a compensation manager.
constraint and/or an opportunity
In the shorter run, employers must be in compliance and will need to consider how changes to the min wage will affect their labor costs, to what degree they can pass the higher costs on to the customers, and what degree they will need to take some other action to ____ or _______.
control; offset higher labor costs
The more ____ a firm is able to exercise, the more likely it is that the RIRS will see the worker as an employee rather than an independent contractor. The IRS also considered the type of _______, including its permanence.
control; relationship
Higher labor costs for affected firms may lead them to ______________________________.
decrease their demand for workers and/or their hours worked
Recent research shows that the primary sources contributing to the gender gap _____ from the primary sources for the race/ethic gaps.
differ
Within a firm, ____ in policies for different jobs may even exist
differences
Title VIII cases of pay discrimination typically focus on _______ in pay, ______, ________,and ______.
differences; promotions; pay raises; performance reviews
changes to the federal min wage have ____ effects.
direect
Law-abiding employers are put a a______ because complain with the law results in higher costs than those borne by employers that misclassify
disadvantage
Many studies of the earnings gap have little relevance to understanding _____ in pay-setting practices with in organizations.
discrimination
Even if legitimate factors fully explain gender, ethnic and racial group pay differences, ______________.
discrimination still could have occurred
One effect of prevailing wage laws is to ____ market wages and drive up the cost of government-financed projects
distort
Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (2010):
gives SEC authority to grant shareholders proxy access to nominate directors; standards for listing a company on an exchange require that compensation committees include only independent directors and that the committee has authority to hire its own compensation consultants; requires public companies to set policies to allow executive compensation to be taken back if it was based on inaccurate financial statements that did not comply with accounting standards; requires reporting of the ratio of chief executive officer pay to worker pay and the magnitude of the relationship between executive pay and corporate finical performance; directs regulators to develop rules specific to the financial industry; nonbonding vote by shareholders to approve or disapprove executive pay
If state and federal laws cover the same job, the _____ rate prevails.
higher
Places with living wages allowed firms to benefit from reduced turnover and absenteeism. New Hires tended to be better qualified, with ____ levels of education and training than those hired before the laws passed. The new hires also included a higher proportion of males. The study also found that __ percent of the benefit of the law went to low-income families
higher; 70
A spate of new laws extends prevailing-wage coverage to new ______ to the United States and to ___________ whoa re working in the eUnited States under special provisions.
immigrants; non-citizens
_____ policy and how rigorously it is enforced is an increasingly important factor in labor supply
immigration
there are also ____, spill over effects from changing the min wage because as legislation forces pay rates at the lowest end of the scale to move up, pay rates above the min wage often increase in order to maintain differentials.
indirect
One factors that affect earnings differences among men and women and among race/ethnic groups are the _____ and the _____ in which they are employed.
industries; firms
trade-offs between higher wages and fewer jobs make unions in industries facing stiff ______________ reluctant to aggressively support comparable worth
international competition
All this research and discussion about sources of earnings gap does not mean that there are not any discriminatory pay practices; ______________________________________________.
it does mean that important sources of the pay gaps reside in other prodcutivty-related factors such s level and quality of education, work-life.career tradeoffs, and occupational choices
In the eyes of the Department of Labor, the ___________ is not relevant, rather it is the actual nature of the work that matters when classifying whether employees are executives or not.
job title
The notion of comparable worth says that if __________________________________________________________.
jobs require comparable skill, effort, and responsibility, the pay must be comparable, no matter how dissimilar the job content may be
The ____ branch interprets laws and considers their constitutionality.
judicial
Government decisions also affect conditions in the ________.
labor market
One notable concern remains:
lack of representation of women in executive and director level positions in organizations, sometimes referred to as the "glass ceiling" efffect
Employment-related class action lawsuits such as those that pertain to EEO/discrimnation can be very closely to employers because they can include _____ numbers of potential plaintiffs
large
One challenge is that any worker who has a history of ________ will often find it is difficult to break out of that pattern because employers regularly ask applicants what they earned in current/previous jobs. (some states have banned this)
low wages/ salaries
Arbitration (deferral to):
many employers now ask employees to sign agreements that require them to use arbitration systems to resolve individual employment disputes in lieu of filling a lawsuit or filing a complain with a government agency. The employer must provide e"consideration" (something to value) in return for employees giving u their right to sue in individual dispute cases
The extent that these differences are the result of industry and firm practices that steer women and minorities into certain occupations and instureies or lower-paying parts of a profession, they ___ reflect discrimination.
may
Effort:
mental or physical- the degree of effort (not type of effort) actually expended in the performance of a job
______ legislation is intended to provide an income floor for workers in society's least productive jobs.
minimum-wage
In addition to government fiscal policy, the federal government influences overall economic growth/demand and business activity through its _________ policy.
monetary
A mandated job evaluation, especially a single point plan that specifies a hierarchy of all jobs, seems to counter to the director in which most organization are _________.
moving today
If employees can use this on-call time for their own purpose,e there is ___ legal requirement to pay employees for such time, even if they are required to carry a beeper or must let their employer know where they can be reached
no
The employer simply did not offer all bonuses to be calculated as part of over pay for ___________.
nonexempt employees
The extent that these differences in job setting are the result of an individual's preference or disposition, they are ____ evidence of disciimination.
not
The overtime provision of the FLSA requires payment at __________ times the standard for working more than ___ hours per week.
one-and-a-half; 40
An independent contractor would not be eligible for _______ (time and a half)
overtime
The court continues to uphold use of ______ to justify pay differences for different jobs
pay differences
The _________ provides that time spent on actives before beginning the "principal activity" is generally not compensable
portal-to-portal
Higher min wage, which is intended to help low wage workers, runs the risk of ____________.
reducing employment opportunities for these very workers it is intended to help
The National Labor Relations Board has ruled that workers cannot be ______ to give up their right to be part of a class actions lawsuit.
required
The majority of those earning minimum wage or less are in __________, mostly food service, where trips supplement hourly wages for many workers.
service occupations
Usually a ____ practice is not singled out; rather, the argument focus on a "________"
single; pattern of practices
The ___ of a firm is systematically related to differences in wages.
size
In addition to being a big employer, and thus competing with private sector organization for employees, government also indirectly affects labor demand in the private sector through its _______________ and ____.
spending and purchases; tax policy
A second approach to determining pay discrimination on jobs of dissimilar content hinges on finding a ________________.
standard by which to compare the value of jobs The standard must do two things -must permit jobs with dissimilar content to be declared equal or in some sense comparable - it must permit pay differences for dissimilar jobs that are not comparable
A ______ approach for determining whether discrimination explains part of the gap is to try to relate pay differences to the factors discussed above. Usually with this method if there is a significant gap between men an women then it would be considered discrimination. but this is not sufficient enough
standard statistical
The regulatory environment is also a function of ____ and ____ laws, which often cover employers not covered by federal laws and/or include requirements
state; local
access discrimination:
the denial of particular jobs, promotion, or training opportunities to qualified women or minorities
Whether a min wage "works" or not depends on whether _____________________.
the gains through higher wages are greater than the losses of jobs and/or hours
Another consideration in evaluating min wage law effectiveness is whether ________________________________.
wage gains go primarily to workers from low income families rather than going to workers from families with higher incomes
In states and cities which enacted comparable-worth legislation for public employees, the results fo these studies are used to adjust pay for jobs predominately by ____.
women
There is evidence that ____ of all ethic groups are more likely than man to seek part-time and flexible work arrangements and that they are more lielkty than meant o interrupts their careers due to family responsibilities.
women
It appears that differences in the ________ and differences in ________ are central to understanding the remaining gender wage gaps.
work/occupation; work-related behaviors
_____ suffer if they are denied access to benefits and legal protections that they should receive
workers
