Chapter 18: The Circulatory System: Blood

...neutrophils.

A bacterial infection may trigger the production of _______________.

Plasma

A clear, light-yellow fluid constituting a little over half of the blood volume.

Embolus

A clot that breaks loose and travels through the bloodstream.

Thrombocytopenia

A dangerous platelet deficiency.

...now a mature erythrocyte.

A day or two after the reticulocyte enters the circulating blood, the last of the polyribosome disintegrate and disappear and the cell is ________________.

Anemia

A deficiency of either RBCs or hemoglobin.

...strict vegetarians.

A deficiency of vitamin B also causes anemia, but B12 is so abundant in meat that a deficiency is rare except in _________.

Polycythemia

A disorder characterized by an abnormal increase in the number of red blood cells in the blood.

Megakaryocyte

A gigantic cell visible to the naked eye; most live in the red bone marrow adjacent to sinusoids.

Biliverdin

A greenish pigment.

Granulocytes

A group of leukocytes containing granules in their cytoplasm; neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils.

Agranulocytes

A group of leukocytes without granules in their nuclei; lymphocytes, monocytes.

...jaundice.

A high level of bilirubin in the blood causes ____________.

Tissue Thromboplastin (Factor III)

A lipoprotein mixture released when there is damage to blood vessels and perivascular tissue.

Blood

A liquid connective tissue composed, like other connective tissues, of cells and extracellular matrix.

...proplatelets.

A megakaryocyte sprouts long tendrils called ____________ that protrude through the endothelium into the blood of the sinusoid.

...Blood Types A or AB.

A person with type A (anti-B) must never be given a transfusion of type _____________.

...Blood Types A or AB.

A person with type B (anti-A) must never receive type ________________.

Reaction Cascade

A series of reactions, each of which depends on the product of the preceding one.

Fibrinogen

A soluble precursor of fibrin.

Fibrin

A sticky protein that forms the framework of a blood clot.

Histamine

A vasodilator that widens the blood vessels, speeds the flow of blood to an injured tissue, and makes the blood vessels are permeable so that blood components such as neutrophils and clotting proteins can get into connective tissues more quickly.

Jaundice

A yellowish cast in the skin and whites of the eyes; may be a sign of rapid hemolysis or a liver disease or bile duct obstruction that interferes with bilirubin disposal.

Bilirubin

A yellowish-green pigment that is released by the microphages and binds to albumin in the blood plasma.

Thrombosis

Abnormal clotting of blood in an unbroken blood vessel; becomes increasingly problematic in old age.

Leukocytosis

Abnormally high WBC count; usually indicates infection, allergy, or other diseases but can also occur in response to dehydration or emotional disturbances.

Leukopenia

Abnormally low WBC count; seen in lead, arsenic, and mercury poisoning; radiation sickness; and infectious diseases such as measles, mumps, chickenpox, etc.

...bound to the globin.

About 5% of the Co2 in the bloodstream is also transported by hemoglobin but is _________ rather than to the heme.

...unknown or hereditary.

About half of all cases of hypoplastic anemia are of ____________ cause, especially in adolescents and young adults.

...4 to 6

Adults generally have _________ liters of blood.

Blood Type A or B

Agglutinates only in the corresponding antiserum.

Primary Polycythemia (Polycythemia Vera)

An RBC excess due to cancer of the erythropoietic line of the red bone marrow.

Polycythemia

An RBC excess.

...eosinophil

An allergy stimulates ___________________ production.

Heparin

An anticoagulant that inhibits blood clotting and thus promotes the mobility of other WBCs in the area. They also release chemical signals that attract eosinophils and neutrophils to a site of infection.

...erythropoietin (EPO).

An erythrocyte colony-forming unit (CFU) has receptors for ________________.

...120 days.

An erythrocyte lives for an average of __________ from the time it is produced in the red bone marrow until it dies and breaks up.

...higher androgen.

Androgen stimulates RBC production, and men have _________ levels than women.

...kidney failure.

Anemia often results from ______________, because RBC production depends on erythropoietin, which is mainly produce by them.

Urochrome

Another hemoglobin breakdown of pigment; produces the yellow color of urine.

...destruction.

Antibodies bind to antigens and mark them, or the cells bearing them, for ______________.

...reach their maximum concentrations.

Antibodies of the ABO group _________________ between 8 and 10 years of age and the slowly declines for the rest of one's life.

... inhabit the intestines.

Antibodies of the ABO group are produced mainly in response to bacteria that __________________.

......appear in the plasma

Antibodies of the ABO group begin to ______________ 2 to 8 months. after birth.

...transfusions.

Antibodies of the ABO group cross-react with RBC antigens and are therefore best known for their significance in ______________.

... A or B antigen.

Antibodies of the ABO group react against any _______________ except one's own.

...all cells.

Antigens occur on the surfaces of ___________ and enable the body to distinguish its own cells from foreign matter.

Agglutinogens

Antigens on the surface of the RBC that trigger agglutination.

Acute Leukemia

Appears suddenly, progresses rapidly, and causes death within a few months if it is not treated.

Platelets

Are not cells but small fragments of megakaryocytes.

...Blood Type AB

As a donor, this blood type can agglutinate the recipient's RBCs if it contains anti-A or anti-B, or both.

...die within a year.

Barring successful treatment, most victims of aplastic anemia ________________.

...histamine and heparin

Basophils secrete two chemicals that aid in the body's defense processes: ____________________.

...bile pigments.

Biliverdin and Bilirubin are collectively known as ______________.

...bilirubin.

Biliverdin is further converted into ____________.

Gastroferritin

Binds Fe2+ and transports it to small intestine; is produced by the stomach.

Heme Group

Binds oxygen to a ferrous ion (Fe2+)

Sinusoids

Blood filled spaces.

Myeloid

Blood formation in the bone marrow and lymphoid organs.

...hemorrhagic anemia.

Blood loss anemia is also known as _____________.

ABO Blood Group

Blood types A, B, AB, and O.

...antigens and antibodies.

Blood types are based on large molecules called _______________.

...hemoglobin synthesis.

Bone marrow uses iron for ________________.

...colony-stimulating factors (CSFs).

CFUs have receptors for _____________________.

Erythroblastosis Fetalis (Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn, HDN)

Can occur when a woman has a baby with a mismatched blood type.

Leukemia

Cancer of the hematopoietic tissues; classified as myeloid or lymphoid, acute or chronic.

Carbon Anhydrase (CAH)

Catalyzes the reaction CO2 + H2O = H2CO3

Other Nutritional Anemias

Caused by a deficiency of dietary folic acid, vitamin B, or vitamin C.

Malaria

Caused by a parasite that invades the RBCs and feeds on hemoglobin.

Sickle Cell Disease

Caused by a recessive allele that modifies the hemoglobin.

Iron Deficiency Anemias

Caused by dietary iron deficiency.

Kernicterus

Caused by high levels of bilirubin; a syndrome of toxic brain damage that can be lethal or leave the child with motor, sensory, and mental deficiencies.

Formed Elements

Cells and cell fragments including the red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets; is suspended in the plasma.

Megakaryoblasts

Cells committed to the platelet-producing line; duplicates its DNA repeatedly without undergoing nuclear or cytoplasmic division.

Secondary Polycythemia

Characterized by RBC counts as high as 8 million RBCs/uL; can result from dehydration, smoking, air pollution, emphysema, high altitude, excessive aerobic exercise, etc.

Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSCs)

Classified as multipotent stem cells, destined to develop into multiple mature cell types.

Procoagulants

Clotting factors; most are proteins produced by the liver.

Antigens

Complex molecules such as proteins, glycoproteins and glycolipids that are genetically unique to each individual.

Plasma Cells

Connective tissue cells that are descended from white blood cells called B lymphocytes.

Hemoglobin

Consists of four protein chains called globins.

The Circulatory System

Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.

Colloid Osmotic Pressure

Contribution of protein to blood osmotic pressure.

Anemia of Old Age

Declining erythropoiesis due to nutritional deficiencies, reduced physical activity, gastric atrophy, or renal atrophy.

Anemia due to Renal Insufficiency

Deficiency of EPO secretion.

Pernicious Anemia

Deficiency of intrinsic factor leading to inadequate vitamin B absorption.

Hypoplastic and Aplastic Anemia

Destruction of myeloid tissue by radiation, viruses, some drugs and poisons, or autoimmune disease.

Chronic Leukemia

Develops slowly and may go undetected for months to years; doctors often opt not to treat it but rather pursue "watchful waiting".

... Ferric (Fe3+) and Ferrous (Fe2+) ions.

Dietary iron exists in two forms: ________.

Karl Landsteiner

Discovered the blood can be grouped into A, B, and O in 1900.

Globulins

Divided into three subclasses; play various roles in solute transport, clotting, and immunity.

Blood Type O

Doesn't agglutinate in either anti-A or anti-B serum.

...WBC type.

Each CSF stimulates a different _______________ to develop in response to specific needs.

...O2.

Each Heme can carry one molecule of __________.

...attach to several RBCs at once and agglutinate them.

Each antibody molecule has 10 binding sites where it can attach to either an A or B antigen. An antibody can therefore __________________.

...stomach tissue.

Elderly people sometimes develop pernicious anemia, and autoimmune disease in which antibodies destroy ____________.

...The blood plasma.

Electrolytes are another important component of ___________.

Cytochromes

Electron-transporting molecules.

...secrete chemicals.

Eosinophils __________ that weaken or destroy relatively large parasites such as hookworms and tapeworms.

Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)

Erythroblastosis Fetalis is also known as ___________.

Seven Kinds of Formed Elements

Erythrocytes, five kinds of Leukocytes, and platelets.

...atrophy.

Erythropoiesis also declines with age, simply because the kidneys _____________ and produce less and less EPO as we get older.

...erythrocyte colony-forming unit (CFU).

Erythropoiesis begins when a hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) becomes an _________________.

Blood Type AB

Exhibits conspicuous agglutination in both anti-A and anti-B serum.

Phototherapy

Exposure to ultraviolet radiation.

Transferrin

Fe2+ that has been transported to the small intestine is now bound to this plasma protein after being absorbed into the blood. It now will travel to the bone marrow, liver, and other tissues.

...Gamma chains.

Fetal Hemoglobin has _________ in place of the beta chains.

Blood Serum

Fluid overlying clotting proteins (mainly fibrin).

Globins

Four protein chains; two alpha and two beta chains; each chain conjugated with a nonprotein moiety at its center.

...Plasma cells.

Gamma globulins come from __________.

...phototherapy.

HDN can be treated with ___________________.

...Blood Flow.

HSCs multiply to maintain a small but persistent population in the ___________.

Eosinophils

Harder to find in a blood film because they're only 2% to 4% of the WBC count but are abundant in the mucous membranes of the respiratory, digestive, and lower urinary tracts.

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

Have two principal functions: 1. To pick up oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to tissues elsewhere. 2. To pick up carbon dioxide from the tissues and unload it in the lungs.

...extract oxygen from the mother's bloodstream.

HbF binds oxygen more tightly than HbA does; this enables the fetus to _____________________.

RBC Destruction (Hemolytic Anemia) from Blood Type Incompatibility

Hemolytic disease of the newborn, transfusion reactions.

Blood Loss Anemia from Hereditary Clotting Deficiencies

Hemophillia

Macrophages

Highly phagocytic cells that consume dead or dying host and foreign cells, pathogenic chemicals and microorganisms, and other foreign matter.

Erythropoietin (EPO)

Hormone secreted by the kidneys; stimulates the CFU to transform into an erythroblast (normoblast).

...erythropoiesis.

Hypoplastic Anemia is caused by a decline in ______________.

...infarction.

If an embolus lodges into a vessel that supplies vital tissue of the heart, brain, lungs, or kidneys, __________ may occur.

...the bloodstream absorbs too much water.

If blood osmolarity is too high, ____________. This raises the blood volume, resulting in high blood pressure and a potentially dangerous strain on the heart and arteries.

...too much water remains in the tissues.

If blood osmolarity is too low, ____________. The become edematous and the blood pressure may drop to dangerously low levels because of the water lost from the bloodstream.

...agglutinate.

If type B blood were transfused into a type A recipient the recipient's anti-B would immediately ______________ the donor's RBCs.

Vascular Spasm

Immediate response to blood vessel injury; results in constriction.

...block kidney tubules or cause renal failure.

Improper disposal of hemoglobin can ____________.

...men.

In __________, the blood clots faster and the skin as fewer blood vessels than in the opposing gender.

...enlarged and misshapen.

In a futile effort to counteract the hypoxemia, the hematopoietic tissues become so active that bones of the cranium and elsewhere become _______________.

...RBCs

In blood fractionation, this element, which is the densest, settles to the bottom of the tube and typically constitutes 37% to 52%

...amino acid sequences.

In fetal hemoglobin, the delta and gamma chains are the same length as the beta chains but differ in ____________.

...Capillary walls.

In order to nourish surrounding cells and remove their wastes, substances must pass between the bloodstream and tissue fluid through the ___________.

Agglutination

In which each antibody molecule binds to two or more foreign cells and stick them together.

Three Categories of Anemia

Inadequate erythropoiesis or hemoglobin synthesis, hemorrhagic anemia from bleeding, and hemolytic anemia from RBC destruction.

Categories of Anemia

Inadequate erythropoiesis, blood loss, RBC destruction.

Neutrophilia

Increase in neutrophils.

Principle dangers of Polycythemia

Increased blood volume, pressure and viscosity.

Lymphoid Leukemia

Involves uncontrolled lymphocyte or monocyte production.

Inadequate Erythropoiesis

Iron deficiency anemia, other nutritional anemias, anemia due to renal insufficiency, pernicious anemia, hypoplastic and aplastic anemia, anemia of old age.

...small pale erythrocytes

Iron-deficiency anemia is characterized by __________.

...blood loss.

Iron-deficiency anemia is usually caused by ___________ without getting enough dietary iron to compensate for it.

Alpha Agglutinin (Anti-A)

Is present in the plasma of people with type O or type B blood; anyone who does not possess antigen A.

...agglutinate.

It is imperative that the donor's RBCs not ______________ as they enter the recipient's bloodstream.

...erythrocytes.

It is the lack of life-giving oxygen, carried by _________, that leads rapidly to death in cases of major trauma or hemorrhage.

...Aerobic respiration.

Lack of ____________ prevents RBCs from consuming the oxygen that must transport to other tissues.

Coagulation (Clotting)

Last and most effective defense against bleeding; this process is complex and includes over 30 chemical reactions.

... retain their organelles throughout life.

Leukocytes differ from erythrocytes in that they ___________, thus when viewed with the transmission electron microscope, they show a complex internal structure.

Monoblasts

Look identical to myeloblasts but lead ultimately to monocytes.

...recycled.

Lymphocytes are continually ____________ from blood to tissue to lymph and back to the blood.

...thymus.

Lymphocytes begin developing in the bone marrow but don't stay there. Some types mature there and others migrate to the _________ to complete their development.

Nonspecific Granules

Lysosomes in WBCs; absorb blue or violet dyes of blood stains.

...the cell surface.

Macrophages chop up or process foreign antigens and display fragments of them on _______________ to alert the immune system to the presence of a pathogen.

RBC Destruction (Hemolytic Anemia) from Parasitic Infection

Malaria Parasites

...spleen.

Many RBCs die in the ________.

Myeloid Leukemia

Marked by uncontrolled granulocyte production.

Megakaryocytes

Marrow cells.

Thrombus

May grow large enough to obstruct a small vessel, or a piece of it may break loose and begin to travel in the bloodstream as a embolus.

...biliverdin.

Microphage converts the rest of the heme into _____________.

...releasing it into the blood.

Microphages begin disposing of the heme by removing the iron and ______________, where it combines with transferrin and is used or stored in the same way as dietary iron.

...separating the heme from the goblin.

Microphages begin the disposal process of hemoglobin by _____________.

...free amino acids.

Microphages hydrolyze the globin into ____________, which can be metabolized as fuel or recycled for protein synthesis.

Transfusion Reaction

Mismatched blood; agglutinated RBCs block small blood vessels, hemolyze, and release their hemoglobin over the next few hours to days.

...macrophages.

Monocytes go to work only after leaving the bloodstream and transforming into large tissue cells called _______________.

... intrinsic factor.

More often, B12 deficiency is occurs when glands of the stomach fail to produce a substance called ________________.

...differential WBC count.

More useful than a total WBC count is a _________________, which identifies what percentage of the total WBC count consists of each type of leukocyte.

...periodic menstrual losses.

Most women of reproductive age have ________________.

...myoglobin.

Muscle uses iron to make _____________.

RBC Destruction (Hemolytic Anemia) from Poisoning

Mushroom toxins, snake and spider venoms.

...cytochromes.

Nearly all cells use iron to make _____________ in their mitochondria.

...polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs).

Neutrophils are also called ___________________ because of their varied nuclear shapes.

...reticulocytes.

Normally, about 0.5% to 1.5% of the circulating RBCs are _________.

...agglutination.

One method of antibody is called _________________.

...antigens A and B on the RBCs.

One's ABO blood type is determined by the hereditary presence or absence of ___________________.

...sodium ions, protein, and erythrocytes.

Osmolarity of the blood is a product mainly of its ___________.

Myoglobin

Oxygen binding protein.

Hemoglobin

Oxygen carrying pigment in red blood cells. Also aids in the tranport of carbon dioxide.

Hypoxemia

Oxygen deficiency in the blood.

RBC Destruction (Hemolytic Anemia) from Drug Reactions

Penicillin Allergy

...High blood pressure.

People with ___________ are often advised to limit their sodium intake.

Hematocrit (Packed Cell Volume)

Percentage of whole blood volume composed of RBCs.

...bilirubin.

Phototherapy degrades _____________ as blood passes through capillaries of the skin.

...2.0

Plasma alone is ________ times as viscous as water mainly because of its proteins.

Agglutinins

Plasma antibodies that bind to agglutinogens.

...Water, proteins, nutrients, electrolytes, nitrogenous wastes, hormones, and gases

Plasma is a complex mixture of ______.

...Clotting, defense against pathogens, and transport of other solutes.

Plasma proteins play a variety of roles including __________.

...nucleus.

Platelets do not have a ______________.

...outlasted their usefulness.

Platelets initiate the formation of a clot-dissolving enzyme that dissolves blood clots that have __________________.

...bacteria.

Platelets internalize and destroy _________________.

...growth factors.

Platelets secrete ______________ that stimulate mitosis in fibroblasts and smooth muscle and thereby help to maintain and repair blood vessels.

...vasoconstrictors.

Platelets secrete ______________, chemicals that stimulate spasmodic constriction of broken vessels and help to reduce blood loss.

...procoagulants.

Platelets secrete _______________, or clotting factors, which promote the formation of blood clots more durable than platelet plugs.

...site of inflammation.

Platelets secrete chemicals that attract neutrophils and monocytes to ___________________.

...platelet plugs.

Platelets stick together to form temporary _______________ that seal small breaks in injured blood vessels.

Lymphoblasts

Produce all lymphocyte types.

Erthythropoiesis

Production of erythrocytes; normally takes 3 to 5 days and involves four major developments.

Hematopoiesis

Production of the blood and its formed elements.

...negative feedback manner.

RBC count is maintained in a classic _______________.

...hemolytic anemia.

RBC destruction is also known as ______________.

...Lose their nucleus and other organelles.

RBCs __________ during maturation and are thus remarkably devoid of internal structure.

...deliver oxygen.

RBCs are made to____________, not consume it.

...microscopic examination.

RBCs are the most abundant formed elements of the blood and therefore the most obvious things one sees upon its _________.

...anaerobic fermentation.

RBCs rely exclusively on __________ to produce ATP.

Basophils

Rarest of all formed elements; usually constitute less than 0.5% of the WBC count.

Four Major Developments of Erythropoiesis

Reduction in cell size; an increase in cell number; the synthesis of hemoglobin; and the loss of the nucleus and other organelles.

Cardiovascular System

Refers only to the heart and vessels.

Osmolarity

Refers to the total concentration of solute particles.

Ferritin

Releases fe2+ into circulation when needed.

...transfusion reaction.

Repetition of the agglutination process produces large clumps of cells that can cause the complications of the ______________.

Urobilirubin

Responsible for the brown color of the feces.

...the circulating blood.

Reticulocytes leave the bone marrow and enter______________.

Lymphocytes

Second to neutrophils in abundance and are thus quickly spotted when examining a blood film; make up 25% to 33% of the WBC count.

Blood Fractionation

Separation of blood into its basic components, is based on centrifugation and coagulation.

...sixth amino acid.

Sickle Cell Hemoglobin (HbS) differs from normal HbA only in the ______________ of the beta chain, where the HbA has glutamic acid and HbS has valine.

RBC Destruction (Hemolytic Anemia) from Hereditary Hemoglobin Defects

Sickle-cell disease, thalassemia

...Plasma cations.

Sodium ions constitute about 90% of the __________.

...Osmolarity of the blood.

Sodium is more important than any other solute to the ________.

Colony forming Units (CFUs)

Some HSCs become this more specialized cell type which is destined to produce one or another class formed elements.

...Fe2+.

Stomach acid converts Fe3+ to __________, the only form that the small intestine can absorb.

...the amount of oxygen the blood can carry.

The RBC count and hemoglobin concentration are important clinical data because they determine ________________________.

...Cytoplasm.

The _______ of an RBC consists mainly of a 33% solution of hemoglobin.

...monocyte count.

The ______________ rises in inflammation and viral infections.

...alpha agglutinin (anti-A).

The antibody that reacts against antigen A is called ____________.

Beta Agglutinin (Anti-B)

The antibody that reacts against antigen B; present in type O and type A individuals, or those who do not possess antigen B.

...Urobilirubin

The bacteria of the gallbladder converts bilirubin into _________.

...myeloid tissue.

The complete failure or destruction of the ___________ produces aplastic anemia.

...opportunistic infection.

The deficiency of competent WBCs leaves the patient vulnerable to ____________________.

Opportunistic Infection

The establishment of pathogenic organisms that usually cannot get a foot-hold in people with healthy immune systems.

...greater.

The hematocrit is inversely proportional to percentage of body fat, which is ___________ in women than in men on average.

...4

The hemoglobin as a whole can transport up to __________ O2.

...4.2 to 5.4 million/uL.

The hemoglobin concentration of whole blood is normally ____________ in women.

...13 to 18 grams per deciliter.

The hemoglobin concentration of whole blood is normally _____________ in men.

Monocytes

The largest WBCs seen on a blood slide; average about 3% to 8% of the WBC count.

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells, WBC)

The least abundant formed element: conspicuous nuclei that stain from light violet to dark purple with the most common blood stains.

...apoferritin.

The liver binds surplus iron to _________, forming an iron-storage complex called ferritin.

...4g

The liver produces as much as ______ of plasma protein per hour, contributing all of the major proteins except gamma globulins.

Hemoglobin Concentration

The measure of the concentration of hemoglobin in a given volume of packed red blood cells.

Neutrophils

The most abundant WBCs, constituting 60% to 70% of the circulating leukocytes; nucleus is clearly visible.

Urea

The most abundant of nitrogenous wastes; a product of amino acid catabolism.

...mature neutrophil.

The nucleus in ____________ typically consists of three to five lobes connected by slender nuclear strands. These strands are sometimes so delicate their scarcely visible.

...42% to 52%.

The percentage of whole blood volume composed of RBCs in men normally ranges from __________.

...37% to 48%.

The percentage of whole blood volume composed of RBCs in women normally ranges from ___________.

Hematocrit (Packed Cell Volume, PCV)

The percentage of whole blood volume composed of RBCs.

...Glycolipids

The plasma membrane of a mature RBC has _______ on the outer surface that determine a person's blood type.

Thrombopoiesis

The production of platelets.

Leukopoiesis

The production of white blood cells begins with the same hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) as erythropoiesis.

...granulocytes and monocytes.

The red bone marrow stores ____________ until they are needed and contains 10 to 20 times more of these cells than the circulating blood does.

Viscosity

The resistance of a fluid to flow, resulting from cohesion of its particles; important in circulatory function because it partially governs the flow of blood through the vessels.

Hemolysis

The rupture of RBCs; releases hemoglobin and leaves empty plasma membranes. which are easily digested by microphages in the liver and spleen.

Albumin

The smallest and most abundant plasma protein; serves to transport various solutes and buffer the pH of blood plasma.

Hemostasis

The stoppage of bleeding; may not stop hemorrhage from a large blood vessel but is quite effective at closing breaks in small ones.

...leukopenia.

The total WBC count is normally 5,000 to 10,000 WBCs/uL. A count below this range is called ________________.

...packed RBCs with a minimum of plasma.

There are procedures for reducing the risk of a transfusion reaction in certain mismatches, such as giving _______________.

Formed Elements

These are membrane enclosed bodies with a definite structure visible with the microscope.

...WBCs and platelets

These elements will settle into a narrow cream or buff colored zone called the buffy coat just above the RBCs.

Erythroblasts

These multiply, build up a large cell population, and synthesize hemoglobin.

...leukocytes (WBCs)

They spend only a few hours in the blood stream, then migrate into the connective tissues and spend the rest of their lives there.

Rh-Positive (Rh+)

Those who have the D antigen.

Rh-Negative (Rh-)

Those who lack the D antigen.

Albumin, globulins, fibrinogen.

Three Major Categories of Plasma Proteins

...hematocrit, hemoglobin concentration, and RBC count.

Three of the most common measurements are ________________.

...thrombopoietin.

Thrombopoiesis is stimulated by a hormone from the liver and kidneys called _______________.

Infarction

Tissue death.

Three Potential Consequences of Anemia

Tissue hypoxia and necrosis, blood osmolarity is reduced producing tissue edema, blood viscosity is low.

Hematopoietic Tissues

Tissues that produce blood cells.

Fundamental Purpose of the Circulatory System

To transport substances from place to place in the body.

Nitrogenous Wastes

Toxic end products of catabolism; normally excreted by the kidneys at a rate that balances their production.

Functions of the Circulatory System

Transport, protection, regulation.

Blood Loss Anemia from Nonhereditary Causes

Trauma, aneurysm, menstruation, ulcer.

Granulocytes and Arganulocytes

Two Categories of Leukocytes

...Blood Types A, B, or AB.

Type O (anti-A and anti-B) individuals cannot safely receive type ________________.

...the United States.

Type O blood is the most common and AB is the rarest in ____________.

Myeloblasts

Ultimately differentiates into the three types of granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.

Fetal Hemoglobin (HbF)

Unique form of hemoglobin that has higher affinity for oxygen than does adult hemoglobin.

Blood Type O

Universal donor, however, the plasma of this donor can agglutinate the RBCs of a type A, B, or AB recipient.

Blood Type AB

Universal recipient: lacks both anti-A and anti-B antibodies, thus will not agglutinate donor RBCs of any ABO type.

Platelet Plug Formation

Upon contact with collagen fibers, platelets will grow long spiny pseudopods that adhere to the vessel and to other platelets. They then constrict and draw the walls of the vessel together.

Three Hemostatic Mechanisms

Vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood clotting.

...Blood Volume

WBCs and platelets total 1% or less of the __________.

A person's ABO type.

What can be determined by placing one drop of blood in a pool of anti-A serum and another drop in a pool of anti-B?

...pseudopods.

When activated, platelets form ____________ and are capable of ameboid movement.

...reticulocyte.

When erythroblasts are done completing their tasks, their nuclei shrivel, are discharged from the cells, and are consumed by microphages. The cell is now called a ___________.

...phagocytized.

When leukocytes die, they are generally _________________ and digested by macrophages.

...antibodies.

When the body detects an antigen of foreign origin, it activates an immune response that consists partly of plasma cells secreting proteins called ___________.

...4.5 to 5.5

Whole blood is _______ times as viscous as water, mainly because of the RBCs.

...2

Without treatment, a child with sickle-cell disease has little chance of living to age _____________.

...band cells.

Young neutrophils have an undivided band-shaped nucleus and are called _______________.

...Iron.

________ is a critical part of the hemoglobin molecules and therefore one of the key nutritional requirements for erythropoiesis.

...RBCs

_________ are the only human cells that carry on anaerobic fermentation indefinitely.

...A severe deficiency of leukocytes or platelets.

___________ can be fatal within a few days.

...A severe deficiency of RBCs.

___________ can be fatal within minutes.

...An excess RBC or protein

___________ causes blood to flow too sluggishly.

...Protein

___________ is the most abundant plasma solute by weight, totaling 6 to 9 g/dl.

...Neutrophils

____________ are aggressively antibacterial cells. Their numbers rise in response to bacterial infections.

...aplastic anemia.

____________ leads to grotesque tissue necrosis and blackening of the skin.

...granulocytes.

_____________ circulate the blood for 4 to 8 hours and then migrate into the tissues, where they live another 4 or 5 days.

...mature lymphocytes.

_____________ from both the bone marrow and thymus then colonize the spleen, lymph nodes, and other lymphoid organs and tissues.

...A RBC or protein deficiency

_____________ reduces viscosity and causes blood to flow too easily.

...free hemoglobin

_____________, especially due to a poorly matched blood transfusion, can block the kidney tubules and cause death from acute renal failure within a week or so.

...chronic hypoxemia.

______________ also causes fatigue, weakness, poor mental development, deterioration of the heart and other organs, and many childhood deaths from opportunistic infections.

...sickled erythrocytes.

______________ are sticky; they agglutinate and block small blood vessels causing intense pain in oxygen-starved tissues.

...HbS.

______________ doesn't bind oxygen very well. At low oxygen concentration, it becomes deoxygenated, polymerizes, and forms a gel that makes erythrocytes elongated and pointed at the ends.

...blood loss.

______________ stimulates accelerated erythropoiesis and leads to an increasing number of reticulocytes in circulation.

...platelets.

_______________ have a complex internal structure that includes lysosomes, mitochondria, microtubules, and microfilaments; granules filled with platelet secretions; and an open canalicular system.

...eosinophils.

_______________ phagocytize and dispose of inflammatory chemicals, antigen-antibody complexes, and allergens.

...dead neutrophils.

_______________, however, are responsible for the creamy color of pus and are sometimes disposed of by the rupture of a blister onto the skin surface.

...mature lymphocytes and macrophages

________________ secrete several types of CSFs in response to infections and other immune challenges.

...lymphocytes.

________________, responsible for long-term immunity, survive from a few weeks to decades; they leave the bloodstream for the tissues and eventually enter the lymphatic vessels, which empty them back into the bloodstream.

...blockage of circulation.

_________________ can also lead to kidney or heart failure, stroke, severe joint pain, or paralysis.

...monocytes.

__________________ travel in the blood for 10 to 20 hours, the migrate into the tissues and transform into a variety of microphages, which can live as long as a few years.