Chapter 18: The French Revolution
The Paris Commune compelled the Legislative Assembly to call for the election by universal male suffrage of another new assembly to write a democratic constitution. The body, called the ____ after the American Constitutional Convention of 1787 met on September 21, 1792.
Convention
The new royal director-general of finances, ______(1732-1804), a Swiss banker, produced a public report in 1781 that suggested that the situation was not so bad as had been feared. He argued that if the expenditures for the American war were removed, the budget was in surplus. The report also revealed that a large portion of royal expenditures went to pensions for aristocrats and other royal court favorites. This report angered aristocratic circles and he left office. His insight made it more difficult for the government officials to raise taxes
Jacques Necker
On June 1, the Third Estate invited the clergy and the nobles to join them in organizing a new legislative body. A few priests did so. On June 17, that body declared itself the _____ ____, and on June 19 the Second Estate voted to join the Assembly.
National Assembly
Early in September, in what are known as the ____ ___, the Paris Commune summarily executed about 1,200 people who were in the city jails. Some were aristocrats or priests but most were common criminals. The crowd had assumed the prisoners were all counterrevolutionaries. News of this along with the massacre of the Swiss guards and the imprisonment of the royal family roused new hostility across Europe.
September Massacres
In 1788 bankers refused to extend necessary short-term credit to the government. Consequently, the king in 1788, through Brienne, agreed to summon the Estates General the next year. Brienne resigned and Necker replaced him. The Estates General had been called because of the political deadlock between the monarchy and the interests of aristocratic institutions and the church
calling of the Estates General
In 1793, William Pitt the Younger secured parliamentary approval to suspend ____ ___ and making the writing of certain ideas treasonable. With less success, he attempted to curb freedom of the press.
habeas corpus
In June 1793, the sans-culottes invaded the Convention and successfully demanded the expulsion of the Girondist members. The action radicalized the Convention and gave the Mountain complete control. The Convention approved a fully democratic constitution but delayed implementation until the conclusion of the war. It was never implemented. In August, Lazare Carnot, the member of the Committee of Public Safety, began a mobilization for victory by issuing a ______, a military requisition, conscripting males into the army and directing economic production to military purposes
levée en masse
The ___ kings spent large sums of money on palaces, entertainment and gifts to favorites. Because the government spent a lot of money, taxes were high. The tax system was unjust. The nobles and the clergy paid hardly any taxes. The Church did not pay taxes. The peasants paid most of the taxes.
Bourbon
During 1796, Gracchus Babeuf led the _____. He and his followers called for more radical democracy and for more equality of property. Babeuf was tried and executed. This plot became famous later when European socialists attempted to find their historical roots in the French Revolution
Conspiracy of Equals
By the late 1780s, the French royal government could not command sufficient taxes to fiance itself. The monarchy's unsuccessful search for adequate revenues led it into ongoing conflicts with aristocratic and ecclesiastical institutions. Louis XVI and his ministers were required to summon the French ___ __, which had not met since 1614.
Estates General
The Assembly abolished the ancient French provinces such Burgundy and Brittany and established in their place 83 administrative units called ____which were subdivided into districts, cantos, and communes.
departments
Robespierre secured the passage of the ______ which permitted the revolutionary tribunal to convict suspects without hearing substantial evidence against them.
Law of 22 Prairial
In Birmingham, the government sponsored action to drive _____, a famous chemists and radical political thinker, out of the country.
Joseph Priestly
The monarchy lost much of its moral authority. The sexually scandalous life of Louis XV was known throughout France. Wife of Louis XVI, ______ gained a reputation for sexual misconduct. Louis XVI and his family rarely left the grounds of Versailles to mix with his subjects and with the aristocracy who now, unlike in the days of Louis XIV, lived in Paris.
Marie Antoinette
After Robespierre's execution, the Girondists who had been in prison or in hiding were allowed to return to their seats in the Convention. The convention restructured the the Committee of Public Safety and diminished its power while repealing the Law of the 22 Prairial. Some of the people involved in the terror were removed from public life. The Paris Commune was outlawed and its leaders and deputies on mission were executed. The ____ ___ ___was closed and Jacobins in the provinces were forbidden to correspond with each other
Paris Jacobin Club
In March 1791 a group of women led by ____ had petitioned the Legislative Assembly for the right to bear arms and to fight to protect the revolution. She also wanted women to serve in the National Guard. The pressure of war raised the possibility that the nation could not meet its military needs if it honored the idea of separate spheres. Once the war begun, some Frenchwomen enlisted in the army. 1793 legislation forbade women to participate in military service.
Pauline Leon
The second and third partitions of Poland occurred as a result of fears by the eastern powers that the principles of the French Revolution were establishing themselves in Poland. After the first partition in 1772, Polish leaders had commenced reforms to provide for a stronger state. In 1791, a group of nobles known as the ___ ____issued a new constitution which provided a new bicameral diet and eliminated the liberum veto. The government also established equality before the law and religious toleration. Frederick William II of Prussia promised to defend the new Polish constitutional order because he believed that a stronger Poland was in Prussia's interest against the growing Russian power. Catherine the Great also understood that a reformed Polish state would diminish Russian influence in Poland and eastern Europe.
Polish patriots
The French invasion of the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and the revolutionary reorganization of that areas in 1792 roused the rest of Europe to hostility. In 1792, the Convention declared it would aid all peoples who wished to cast off aristocratic and monarchical oppression. It also proclaimed that the ___ in the Netherlands was open to commerce of all nations and thus violated a treaty that Great Britain made with Austria and Holland.
Scheldt River
By the ______, the Convention concluded peace with Prussia and Spain. The legislators however feared a resurgence of both radical democrats and royalists in the upcoming elections for the Council of Five Hundred. The Convention ruled that at least 2/3 of the new legislature must have served in Convention itself. The Two-Thirds Law undermined the public faith in the new constitutional order.
Treaties of Basel
On August 10, 1792, a large crowed invaded the ____ palace and forced Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette to take refuge in the Legislative Assembly. The crowd fought with the royal Swiss guards in the most extensive violence since the fall of the Bastille. The royal family was imprisoned in comfortable quarters but the king was not allowed to perform his political functions since the established constitutional monarchy no longer had a monarch
Tuileries
Almost immediately after the Estates General was called, the three groups or ___ represented within it clashed with eachother
estates
In 1794, Robespierre, considering the worship of "Reason" too abstract for most citizens, replaced it with the "_______." This deistic cult reflected Rousseau's vision of a civic religion that would induce morality among citizens. He made an ill-tempered speech in the Convention, declaring that other leaders of the government were conspiring against him and the revolution.
"Cult of the Supreme Being"
In 1770, Louis XV appointed ____ as chancellor. The new chancellor was determined to break the parlements and increase taxes on the nobility. He abolished the parlements and exiled their members to different parts of the country. He then began an ambitious program to make the administration more efficient. After Louis XV's death, Louis XVI dismissed the chancellor to regain popular support. He restored the parlements and confirmed their old powers.
Rene Maupeou
In May 1793, Pauline Léon and Claire Lacombe founded the _________. Its purpose was to fight the internal enemies of the revolution. Its members saw themselves as militant citizens. Initially, the Jacobin leaders welcomed the organization. Members of the society and other women filled the galleries of the Convention to hear the debates and cheer their favorite speakers. The society became more radical. Its members sought stricter price controls, worked to ferret out food hoarders, and brawled with working market women who they thought to be insufficiently revolutionary. The women also demanded the right to wear the revolutionary cockade. The Jacobins in the Convention had begun to fear the turmoil that the society was causing and banned all women's clubs and societies. The Jacobins believed that the society opposed many of their economic policies but used Rousseau's language of separate spheres. Olympe de Gouges opposed the Terror and accused the Jacobins of corruption and was executed in 1793
Society of Revolutionary Republican Women
Louis XVI hoped to reassert a role in the proceedings. He intended to call a "Royal Session " of the Estates General for June 23, and closed the room where the National Assembly had been gathering. On June 20, finding themselves locked out of their usual meeting place, the National Assembly moved to a nearby indoor tennis court. There, they agreed to sit until they had given France a constitution. This was the famous ___ ___ ___. Louis XVI ordered the National Assembly to cease.
Tennis Court Oath
In response to the aggression of revolutionary France, European governments turned to repressive domestic policies. In Great Britain, _______, the prime minister who had unsuccessfully supported moderate reform of Parliament during the 1780s, turned against reform and popular movements. The government suppressed the London Corresponding Society founded in 1792 as a working-class reform group.
William Pitt the Younger
____ composed The Rights of Man in response to Burke and in defense of the revolutionary principles.
Thomas Paine
In 1794 Kosciuzko who had been in France since 1792, returned to Poland to lead troops against efforts to unite their forces with the Russian army. Initially, he was successful As the rebellion expanded, the language and symbols of the French Revolution appeared in Polish cities. Before long, Russia, Prussia, and Austria sent troops into Poland. Russian troops killed well over 100,000 Poles outside Warsaw. Kosciuzko ended up in a Russian prison. The next year, the three powers portioned what remained of Poland among them. Polish troops who escaped Poland after the last partition later fought with the armies of the French Revolution and Napoleon against the forces of the partitioning powers
The third partition of Poland
On July 27-the ninth Thermidor on the revolutionary calendar- members of the Convention shouted Robespierre down when he rose to make another speech. That night, he was arrested. The next day, he and about 80 of his supporters were executed. The sans-culottes did not try to save him because he had deprived them of their chief leaders. Other Jacobins turned against him because, after Danton's death, they feared they would be his next victims. The Reign of Terror which had claimed more than 25,000 victims came to a close. It no longer seemed necessary since the war abroad was going well and the provincial uprisings were crushed. This tempering of the revolution, called the ___ ____, because its association with the events of the 9 Thermidore, consisted of the destruction of the machinery of terror and the establishment of a new constitutional regime. It resulted from a feeling that the revolution became too radical. It displayed weariness of the Terror and fear that the sans-culottes became too powerful. The influence of wealthy middle-class and professionals replaced that of the sans-culottes.
Thermidorian Reaction
The executive body was to be a five-person ___ whom the Elders would choose from a lit submitted by the Council of Five Hundred
Directory
In December 1792, Louis XVI was put on trial as "___ ___" the medieval name of the royal family. The Girondists looked for a way to spare his life but the Mountain defeated the effort. The majority convicted the king of conspiring against the liberty of the people and the security of the state. Condemned to death by a smaller majority, he was beheaded on January 21, 1793.
"Citizen Capet"
A movement known as the "___ ___" swept across the French countryside. Rumors that royal troops would be sent into the rural districts intensified the peasant disturbances that had begun during the spring. The movement saw the burning of the chateaux, the the destruction of legal records and documents, and the refusal to pay feudal dues. The peasants were determined to take possession of food supplies and land that they considered to be rightfully theirs. They were reclaiming rights and property they lost. On the night of August 4, 1789, aristocrats in the Assembly attempted to halt the spreading disorder in the countryside. Several liberal nobles and clerics rose in the Assembly and renounced their feudal rights, surrendered hunting and fishing rights, judicial authority, and legal exemptions. Many of them later received financial compensation for their losses. The Assembly abolished the feudal regime.
"Great Fear"
The people in the Convention and Committee of Public Safety believed they had created something new in history, a "____ __ ____." In this republic, civic virtue in terms of Rousseau, the sacrifice of one's self and one's interest for the good of the republic, would replace selfish aristocratic and monarchical corruption. The republic manifested itself in many ways: the republican dress copied from the sans-culottes or the Roman Republic, the absence of powdered wigs, the suppression of literature that was insufficiently republican, and an attack against prostitution which was characteristic of aristocratic society. The core value of the republic of virtue in line with Rousseau was the championing of the general will over individual interests. It was in the name of the public good that the committee of public safety carry out terror
"republic of virtue"
The executions of former terrorists marked the beginning of the "___ ___." Jacobins were executed with little more due process. Gangs of youths who had aristocratic connections or who had avoided serving in the army beat known Jacobins. The so-called "bands of Jesus" dragged suspected terrorists from prisons and murdered them. The dress of the sans-culottes and the Roman Republic disappeared among middle class and the aristocracy. New plays appeared and prostitutes roamed streets again. Families of victims of the Reign of Terror gave parties in which they appeared with shaved necks like the victims of the guillotine and with red ribbons.
"white terror"
Initially, the war effort went poorly. ____, commander of the Prussian forces issued a manifesto threatening to destroy Paris if the French royal family were harmed. This increased distrust of the king
duke of Brunswick
The second revolution was the work of Jacobins (more radical than the Girondists) and of the people of Paris known as the ____-____ which means "without breaches," derived from the trousers that working people wore instead of the aristocratic knee breaches. They were shop-keepers, artisans, wage earners, and factory workers. The policies of the National Constituent Assembly left them victims of unregulated economic liberty. They sought immediate relief from food shortages and rising prices through price controls. They resented most forms of social inequality. They demanded the abolition of property. Rather, they advocated a community of small property owners. The Paris Commune was their chief political vehicle. They were republicans but were suspicious of representative government and believed that the people should make the decisions of government to an extent as great as possible.
sans-culottes
The war radicalized French politics and within months led to what's called the ___ ___ which overthrew the constitutional monarchy and established a republic.
second revolution
In the Constitution of 1791, the National Constituent Assembly established a constitutional monarchy. The major political authority of the nation would be a unicameral Legislative Assembly in which all the laws would originate.The monarch was allowed a ___ that could delay but not halt legislation. The Assembly also had the power to make war and peace.
veto
The two most powerful universal political ideas of the declaration were civic equality and popular sovereignty-governments must be responsible to the governed. Many politically active and informed Frenchwomen hoped the guarantees of the declaration would be extended to them. They were concerned with property, inheritance, family, and divorce.
women and the declaration
Because France remained at work with Austria and Great Britain, it needed a broader loyalty. The Directory came to depend on the power of the army to govern France. All soldiers could vote. Within the army were ambitious officers who were eager for power.
wrap up
As it became clear that the old political and social order was undergoing fundamental change, many aristocrats, eventually over 16,000 left France. Known as the ___, they settled in countries near the French border where they sought to stir up counter revolution. Among them was the king's brother, the count of Artois. In the summer of 1791, his agents and the queen persuaded the king to attempt to flee the country
émigrés
Although the ___ spoke for aristocratic interests, they appear to have enjoyed public support. By the second half of 18th century, many French nobles shared with the wealthy professional and commercial classes similar economic interests and goals for administrative reforms that would support economic growth. They drew on the ideas and arguments of many Enlightenment writers like Montesquieu and the physiocrats.
parlements
The debt was symptomatic of the failure of the late-18th century French monarchy to come to terms with the political power of aristocratic institutions and ____. For 25 years after the Seven Years' War, a standoff occurred between the monarchy and the aristocracy as one royal minister after another attempted to devise new tax schemes that would top the wealth of the nobility only to be confronted by opposition from the Parlement and provincial parlements.
parlements
The aristocracy made two important attempts to limit the influence of the Third Estate. First, a reconvened Assembly of Notables demanded that each estate have an equal number of representatives. Second, the Parlement of Paris ruled that voting in the Estates General should be conducted by order and rather by head-that its, each estate or order in the Estates General, rather than each individual member, should have one vote. This procedure would have ensured the aristocratically dominated First and Second Estates could outvote the Third by a vote of two estates to one estate. Spokesmen from the Third Estate denounced the arrogant claims of the aristocracy. During the 18th century, the interests of the aristocracy and well-educated members of the Third Estate converged and many nobles married husbands and wives from the elite of the Third Estate.
preparation for Estates General
Although the convention favored the Cult of the Supreme Being, it allowed Catholic services to he held. Many priests returned to the country. The Thermidorian Reaction also saw the repeal of legislation that had been passed in 1792 making divorce more equitable for women. But political authorities and the church were determined to reestablish separate spheres for men and women. Frenchwomen may have had less freedom after 1795 than before 1789.
reestablishment
On September 20, 1792 the French army had halted the Prussian advance at the Battle of Valmy in eastern France. After, the Convention declared France a ___-a nation governed by an elected assembly without a monarch
republic
Brienne appealed to the _____ to approve a large subsidy to fund that part of the debt. The clergy, dominated by aristocrats, refused the subsidy and reduced the voluntary contribution that it paid to the government in taxes. The local aristocratic parlements and estates in the provinces wanted to restore the privileges they enjoyed during early 17th century before Richelieu and Loius XIV crushed their independence.
Assembly of the Clergy
On July 14, 1789, crowds stormed the ____, a prison in Paris. This event whose only practical effect was to free a few prisoners marked the fist time the populace of Paris redirected the course of the revolution.
Bastille
In 1791, the Assembly crushed the attempts of urban workers to protect their wages by enacting the ___ __ which forbade workers' associations. The Assembly saw the efforts of organized workers in such a way as to resemble the abolished guilds of the Old Regime and thus to oppose the new values of political and social individualism
Chapelier Law
By 1786, _____ was the minister of finance. He proposed to encourage internal trade, to lower some taxes such as the gabelle on salt, and to transform the corvee, peasants' labor services on public works into money payments. He sought to remove internal barriers to trade and government regulation of the grain trade. He wanted to introduce a new land tax that all landowners would have to pay regardless of their social status. In 1787, he met with an Assembly of Notables, nominated by the royal ministry from the upper ranks of the aristocracy and the church to seek support for his plan. The assembly refused to give it. They called for the reappointment of Necker in his place.
Charles Alexandre de Calonne
In 1790 the Assembly issued the _____ which transformed the Roman Catholic Church in France into a branch of the secular state. This legislation made one diocese for each of the new departments. It also provided for the election of pastors and bishops who became salaried workers of the state. The Assembly dissolved all religious orders in France except for those that cared for the sick, ran schools, and consulted neither the pope nor the French clergy about the changes. The king reluctantly approved the measure. The measure created immense opposition within the French church. The Assembly removed the clergy who had not taken the oath from their clerical functions
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
To mobilize for the war, the revolutionary government organized a collective executive in the form of powerful committees. These sought to organize all French national life on a wartime footing. In April, 1793 the Convention established a ____ and a ____ to carry out the executive duties of the government. The latter committee later enjoyed almost dictatorial power. It saw its task as saving the revolution from enemies at home and abroad. They had long opposed the vacillating policies of the Girondists and enjoyed a political relationship with the sans-culottes
Committee of General Security Committee of Public Safety
The Thermidorian Reaction led to another new constitution. The democratic constitution of 1793 never gone into effect and was abandoned. In its place, the Convention issued the __________ which reflected the Thermidorian determination to reject both constitutional monarchy and democracy. The new document provided for a legislature of two houses as opposed to one chamber.
Constitution of the Year III
Members of the upper body or _____ were to be men over 40 who were husbands or widowers. The lower _____ was to consist of men at least thirty who could be married or single
Council of Elders Council of Five Hundred
On the night of June 20, 1791, Louis and his immediate family, disguised as servants, left Paris. They traveled as far as Varennes on their way to Metz in eastern France where a royalist military force was waiting for them. At Varennes the king was recognized and his flight was halted. On June 24, soldiers escorted the royal family back to Paris. The leaders of the Assembly announced the king was abducted from the capital. In August, Emperor Leopold II of Austria, brother of Marie Antoinette, and King Frederick William II of Prussia issued the ____. The two monarchs promised to intervene to protect the royal family and the monarchy if the other European powers agreed. Great Britain would not have given consent.
Declaration of Pillnitz
On August 27, the Assembly issued the _______. This declaration drew on the political language of the Enlightenment and the Declaration of Rights that Virginia adopted in 1776. The declaration proclaimed that all men were "born and remain free and equal in rights." The natural rights proclaimed were liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. All citizens were to be equally admissible to all employments according to their talents. Freedom of religion was affirmed. Taxation was to be appointed equally according to the capacity to pay.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
In 1793 the Convention declared war on Great Britain and Holland, and then on Spain. Thereafter, the Prussians drove the French out of Belgium. ______, the Girondist victor of Valmy, changed sides and led an army against France. In March 1793, a royalist revolt led my aristocratic officers and priests erupted in the Vendee in western France and roused popular support. The revolution was at war with most of Europe and much of the French nation. The Girondists had led the nation into the war but couldn't suppress the enemies. The Mountain stood ready to take up the task
General Dumouriez
A group of Jacobins known as the ___ or Brissotins assumed leadership of the Assembly. They were determined to oppose the forces of the counterrevolution. They passed a measure ordering the émigrés to return or lose their property and another requiring the refractory clergy to support the Civil Constitution of the Clergy or lose their state pensions. The king vetoed both acts.
Girondists
In 1790, the Irish-born writer and British statesman ___ ___ condemned in Reflections of the Revolution the reconstruction of the French administration as the application of a blind rationalism that ignored historical realities of political development. He forecast further turmoil as people without political experience tried to govern France and predicted the deaths of the king and queen at hands of revolutionaries. He forecast that the revolution would end in military despotism. His work became a handbook for European conservatives. In 1796 He composed Letters on a Regicide Peace. He summarized what he regarded as the worst evils of the revolutionary government-the execution of the king, the confiscation of property of the church and nobles, and de-Christianization
Edmund Burke
In the 17th and 18th centuries anyone who criticized the government could be arrested and put in prison without trial. The government spent more money than it collected taxes. The government was inefficient, unjust and corrupt. There were too many government departments, different laws in different parts of the country and officials. The French Parliament was called the ____, made up of 3 estates. (hadn't meet until 1614 until French revolution)
Estates-General.
Louis XVI replaced Calonne with __________,archbishop of Toulouse and the chief opponent of Calonne at the Assembly of Notables. When in office, Brienne found that the financial situation was as bad as his predecessor had asserted. He sought to reform the land tax. The Parlement of Paris, in its role as the embodiment of public opinion, took the new position that it lacked authority to authorize the tax and that only the Estates General could do so.
Etienne Charles Lonenie de Brienne
By 1793, France was at war with Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, Sardinia, and Holland. The governments of these nations, allied in the ___ ___, were attempting to protect their social structures, political systems, and economic interests against the aggression of the revolution.
First Coalition
In April of 1792 the Girondists led the Assembly to declare war on Austria run by ____ and allied to Prussia. This launched a period of armed conflict across Western Europe which brief intervals of peace until the final defeat of France at Waterloo in 1815. The Girondists believed that the war would preserve the revolution from domestic enemies. Louis XVI and other monarchists favored the war. They thought the conflict would strengthen the executive power (the monarchy). The king also hoped the foreign armies would defeat the French forces and restore the Old Regime
Francis II
The Assembly drew to a close in 1791. It passed a measure that forbade its members to sit in the Legislative Assembly established by the new constitution. In October it had entirely new members and met to confront the challenges from clerical resistance, the king's flight, and the Declaration of Pillnitz. Since the original gathering of the Estates General, deputies from the Third Estate organized into clubs. The most famous of these clubs were the ____. They pressed for a public rather than a constitutional monarchy. They drew inspiration from Rousseau's emphasis on equality, popular sovereignty, and civic virtue.
Jacobins
Robespierre turned against other republicans in the Convention including _____ who served briefly in the Committee of Public Safety. He was accused of being insufficiently militant on the war, profiting monetarily from the revolution, and rejecting the link between politics and moral virtue. He was executed in 1794
Jacques Danton
_____, who emerged as the dominant figure on the Committee of Public Safety, embodied the republic of virtue defended by terror. The selfless man was in the Jacobin Club and favored a republic from the start of the revolution. He opposed the war in 1792, fearing it might aid the monarchy. He depended on the support of the sans-culottes but he wore a powdered wig and knee breeches. "We must smother the internal and external enemies of the Republic or perish without them." "Terror is nothing but prompt, severe, inflexible justice." The policies associated with terror in the name of republican virtue included the exclusion of women from political life, the de-Christianization of France, and the use of revolutionary tribunals(courts of justice) to dispense justice to alleged enemies of the republic
Maximilien de Robespierre
The goals of the sans-culottes were not compatible with those of the Jacobins, republicans who sought representative government. The Jacobins favored an unregulated economy. Once the Convention began to deliberate, the Jacobins known as the ___ because their seats were high up in the assembly hall, worked with the sans-culottes to carry the revolution forward and to win the war
Mountain
The Convention severed its ties with the sans-culottes. True to their belief in an unregulated economy, the Thermidorians repealed the ceiling on prices. As a result the winter of 1794-1795 brought the worst food shortages of the period. There were many food riots which the Convention suppressed. Royalist agents who aimed to restore the monarchy took advantage of their discontent. Vendémiarie-the sections of Paris led by the royalists rose up against the Convention. The government turned the artillery against the royalist rebels. A general named ____ commanded the cannon
Napoleon Bonaparte
On June 27, the king, having lost control of the events around him, formally requested the First and Second Estates to meet with the National Assembly, where voting would occur by head rather than by order. The Third Estate was doubled. Had nothing further occurred, the government would have already been transformed. The monarchy could govern only in cooperation with the National Assembly which would not be a legislative body organized according to privileged orders. The National Assembly, which renamed itself the ___ ___ __, because of its intention to write a new constitution, was composed of a majority of members draw from three orders who shared liberal goals for administrative, economic, and constitutional reform.
National Constituent Assembly
On July 14, large crowds of Parisians, mostly small shopkeepers, artisans, and wage earners, marched to the Bastille to get weapons for the militia. This great fortress had once held political prisoners. The troops in the Bastille fired into the crowd, killing 98. Thereafter, the crowd stormed the fortress. They released the seven prisoners inside, none of whom was a political prisoner, and killed several troops and to governor of the fortress. On July 15, the militia of Paris, by then called the __ __ offered its command to liberal aristocrat , Marquis de Lafayette. He gave the guard a new insignia: the red and blue stripes from the coat of arms of Paris, separated by the white stripe of the royal flag. The emblem became the revolutionary cockade(badge) and eventually the tricolor flag of revolutionary France
National Guard
In 1791 ____, a butcher's daughter who became a revolutionary radical in Paris, composed a Declaration of the Rights of Woman which she addressed to Marie Antoinette. The document added the word woman to the original clauses of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The strategy demanded that women be regarded as citizens. She outlined rights that would permit women to own property. She called for improved education for women.
Olympe de Gouges
In 1791 _____ condemned the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and also the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. This marked the opening of a Catholic offensive against the revolution and liberalism that continued throughout the 19th century. Religious devotion and revolutionary loyalty became incompatible for many people.
Pope Pius VI
Amid the widening of the war, he French people understood that the achievements of the revolution were in danger. To protect those achievements, thousands of people including peasants, nobles, clergy, and business and professional people were arrested and in many cases, executed. These actions to protect the revolution and silence dissent came to be known as the ______
Reign of Terror
The French emerged from the ___ ____ War (1756-1763) defeated, in debt, and unable thereafter to put its finances on a sound basis. French support of the American revolt against Great Britain also deepened the financial hardship of the government. On the eve of the revolution, there interest and payments on the royal debt amounted to just over one-half of the entire budget.
Seven Years' War
In 1792 conservative Polish nobles who opposed the reforms invited Russia to restore the old order. The Russian army defeated the reformist Poles led by ___, a veteran of the American Revolution. In response to the Russian invasion, Frederick William II moved his troops from the west where they were confronting the French revolutionary army to his eastern frontier with Poland. The transfer of Prussian troops was crucial to later French victories.However, rather than protecting Poland, Frederick William reached an agreement with Catherine in 1793 to carry out a second partition of Poland. The reformed constitution was abolished and the new Polish government remained under the influence of Russia
Tadeusz Kosciuzko
Louis XVI stalled before ratifying the declaration and the aristocratic rejection of feudalism. On October 5, some 7,000 armed Parisian women marched to Versailles demanding more bread. They milled about the palace and stayed the night.The king agreed to sanction the decrees if the Assembly. The next day, he and his family appeared on a balcony before the crowd. Suspicious of the monarch, the Parisians demanded that Louis and his family return to Paris with them. On October 6, his carriage followed the crowd into the city where he and his family settled in the old palace of the Tuileries. The Assembly also moved to Paris. A decline in the price of bread in late 1789 helped calm the atmosphere. Paris and France remained stable until the summer of 1792.
Women's March on Versailles
The citizens of France were divided into active and passive categories. Only ___ citizens-that is men paying annual taxes equal to there days of local labor wages-could vote. They chose electors, who then in turn, voted for the members of the legislature. This constitutional arrangement transferred political power from aristocratic wealth to all forms of propertied wealth in the nation.
active
The Assembly suppressed many of the old indirect taxes and substituted new land taxes, but there were not officials to collect those taxes and many people evaded them. The Assembly decided to finance the debt by confiscating and then selling the land and property of the Roman Catholic Church in France. The results were more inflation, religious schism, and civil war. The Assembly authorized the issuance of ___ or government bonds in December, 1789. Their values was guaranteed by the revenue to be generated from the sale of church property. The bonds were so acceptable to the public that they began to circulate as currency. Within a few months, their value began to fall since the government printed to many of them and inflation increased.
assignats
The Third Estate was the most discontented class. The ___were well educated. They were strongly influenced by the ideas of Voltaire and Rousseau who attacked the injustices of the time. They resented the privileges of the nobility and wanted a larger role in state affairs. The city workers were discontented because their wages were not enough to buy goods when prices were going up rapidly. The peasants suffered most. Over 80 per cent of the population were made up of peasants. They had to pay heavy taxes, they paid about four-fifths of their income in taxes. They also needed to pay the land tax; also the taxes on property, roads, salt
bourgeoisie
The mustering of royal troops created anxiety within Paris where in 1789, high prices of ___, the staple food for the poor, had produced riots. The Parisians who elected representatives to the Third Estate had continued to meet after the elections. By June they were organizing a citizen militia and collecting arms. They regarded the dismissal of Necker as a royal offensive against the National Constituent Assembly and Paris. They intended to protect the city and the revolution it had begun.
bread
The First Estate was the ___, the Second Estate was the ____, and the Third Estate was everyone else in the kingdom although its representatives were primarily members of the commercial and professional middle classes
clergy nobility
Under radical working-class pressure, the government of Paris passed from the elected council to a committee or ___, of representatives from the sections of the city. Thereafter, the Paris commune became an independent political force with the role of the protector of the gains of the revolution against internal and external enemies.
commune
Louis XVI attempted to regain the political initiative by mustering royal troops near Versailles and Paris. On the advice of Queen Marie Antoinette, his brothers, and the conservative aristocrats at court, he seemed to be contemplating the use of force against the National Constituent Assembly. On July 11, without consulting Assembly leaders, he dismissed Necker, his minister of finance. Most of the National Constituent Assembly wished to establish some form of ___ ___ but Louis's refusal to cooperate thwarted that effort.
constitutional monarchy
The Convention proclaimed a new calendar dating from the first day of the French Republic. In the same month, the Convention decreed the Cathedral of Notre Dame to be a "Temple of Reason." The legislature then sent trusted members known as ___ into provinces to enforce de-Christianization by closing churches, prosecuting clergy and believers both Catholic and Protestant, occasionally forcing priests to marry, and sometimes simply killing priests and nuns. Churches were used as barns or warehouses. This religious policy alienated parts of French provinces from the revolutionary government in Paris. Robespierre personally opposed it, convinced that it would erode loyalty.
deputies
The royal council eventually decided that strengthening the Third Estate would best serve the interests of the monarchy and the cause of fiscal reform. The council announced that the Third Estate would elect twice as many representatives as either nobles or the clergy. This doubling of the Third Estate meant it could dominate the Estates General if voting proceeded by head rather than by order. The council correctly assumed that liberal nobles and clergy would support the Third Estate, confirming that, despite differences, thee groups shared interests and reform goals. The method of voting had not yet been decided when the Estates General gathered at Versailles in 1789
doubling the Third Estate
One of the most infamous incidents occurred in Nantes where several hundred people including many priests were tied onto rafts and drowned. The victims of Terror were now coming from every social class including the sans-culottes. In 1794, Robespierre secured the execution of certain extreme sans-culottes leaders known as the ___. They wanted further measures to regulate prices, secure social equality, and press de-Christianization
enragés
When the representatives came to the royal palace, they brought with them cahiers de doleances, or lists of _____, registered by the local electors to be presented to the king. The documents criticized government waste, indirect taxes, church taxes and corruption, and the hunting rights of the aristocracy. They included calls for periodic meetings of the Estates General more equitable taxes, more local control of administration, unified weights and measures to facilitate commerce, and a free press. The overwhelming demand of the cahiers was equality of rights among subjects. There was broad agreement that the government needed major reform, that greater equality in taxation and other matters was desirable, and that many aristocratic privileges must be abandoned. The three estates could have cooperated to reach these goals. The cahiers could not be discussed until the questions of the organization and voting in the Estates General had been decided.
grievances
The Reign of Terror manifested itself in tribunals established by the Convention. Enemies included those who might aid other European powers, those who endangered republican virtue, and good republicans who opposed the policies of the dominant faction of the government. The ___ was invented for executions. The drop of the blade was certain to sever the head once whereas beheading by ax or sword required multiple blows and caused unnecessary pain. Other modes of execution like mass shootings and drownings were used in the provinces. The first victims of the Terror were Marie Antoinette, other members of the royal family, and aristocrats who were executed in 1793
guillotine
The ancient judicial courts including the seigneurial courts and parlements were abolished and replaced by uniform courts with elected judges and prosecutors. The most degrading punishments like branding, torture, and flogging were removed.
judicial reform
The Assembly continued the policies that the king's reformist ministers advocated. It suppressed the guilds and liberated the grain trade. It established the ____ __ to provide the nation with uniform weights and measures.
metric system