Chapter 19: Introduction to the Respiratory System

Following a chest X-ray, a patient has been diagnosed with a pleural effusion. The care team has concluded that the quantity of fluid in the patient's intrapleural space necessitates thoracentesis. What patient education should the nurse provide in anticipation of this procedure?

"It's very important that you remain still while the doctor is performing the procedure." To prevent pneumothorax, it is imperative that a patient remain immobile during thoracentesis. The patient should remain on bed rest after the procedure and should not cough during thoracentesis. The preferred positioning is with the patient upright; if this is not possible, side-lying may be used as an alternative.

A client is being admitted to the preoperative holding area for a thoracotomy. Preoperative teaching includes what?

Correct use of incentive spirometry Instruction in the use of incentive spirometry begins before surgery to familiarize the client with its correct use. You do not teach a client the use of a ventilator; you explain that he may be on a ventilator to help him breathe. Rhythmic breathing and mini-nebulizers are unnecessary.

The nurse is caring for a client who has a pleural effusion and who underwent a thoracoscopic procedure earlier in the morning. The nurse should prioritize assessment for which of the following?

Shortness of breath Follow-up care in the health care facility and at home involves monitoring the client for shortness of breath (which might indicate a pneumothorax). All of the listed options are relevant assessment findings, but shortness of breath is the most serious complication.

What are the primary functions of the lungs? Select all that apply.

gas exchange ventilation The primary functions of the lungs include ventilation and gas exchange.

A client has been receiving 100% oxygen therapy by way of a nonrebreather mask for several days. Now the client complains of tingling in the fingers and shortness of breath, is extremely restless, and describes a pain beneath the breastbone. What should the nurse suspect?

Oxygen toxicity Oxygen toxicity may occur when too high a concentration of oxygen (greater than 50%) is administered for an extended period (longer than 48 hours) (Urden, Stacy, & Lough, 2014). Signs and symptoms of oxygen toxicity include substernal discomfort, paresthesias, dyspnea, restlessness, fatigue, malaise, progressive respiratory difficulty, refractory hypoxemia, alveolar atelectasis, and alveolar infiltrates evident on chest x-rays.

The nurse is discussing activity management with a client who is postoperative following thoracotomy. What instructions should the nurse give to the client regarding activity immediately following discharge?

Perform shoulder exercises five times daily. The nurse emphasizes the importance of progressively increased activity. The nurse also instructs the client on the importance of performing shoulder exercises five times daily. The client should ambulate with limits and realize that the return of strength will likely be gradual and likely will not include weight lifting or lengthy walks.

The ED nurse is assessing a client complaining of dyspnea. The nurse auscultates the client's chest and hears wheezing throughout the lung fields. What might this indicate about the client?

A narrowed airway. Wheezing is a high-pitched, musical sound that is often the major finding in a client with bronchoconstriction or airway narrowing. Wheezing is not normally indicative of pneumonia or hemothorax. Wheezing does not indicate the need for physiotherapy.

The nurse is caring for a client diagnosed with pneumonia. The nurse assesses the client for tactile fremitus by completing which action?

Asking the client to repeat "ninety-nine" as the nurse's hands move down the client's thorax While the nurse is assessing for tactile fremitus, the client is asked to repeat "ninety-nine" or "one, two, three," or "eee, eee, eee" as the nurse's hands move down the client's thorax. Vibrations are detected with the palmar surfaces of the fingers and hands, or the ulnar aspect of the extended hands, on the thorax. The hand(s) are moved in sequence down the thorax, and corresponding areas of the thorax are compared. Asking the client to say "one, two, three" while auscultating the lungs is not the proper technique to assess for tactile fremitus. The nurse assesses for anterior respiratory excursion by placing the thumbs along the costal margin of the chest wall and instructing the client to inhale deeply. The nurse assesses for diaphragmatic excursion by instructing the client to take a deep breath and hold it while the diaphragm is percussed.

The nurse has instructed a client on how to perform pursed-lip breathing. The nurse recognizes the purpose of this type of breathing is to accomplish which result?

Improve oxygen transport; induce a slow, deep breathing pattern; and assist the client to control breathing Pursed-lip breathing, which improves oxygen transport, helps induce a slow, deep breathing pattern and assists the client to control breathing, even during periods of stress. This type of breathing helps prevent airway collapse secondary to loss of lung elasticity in emphysema.

A client is scheduled to have excess pleural fluid aspirated with a needle in order to relieve her dyspnea. The client inquires about the normal function of pleural fluid. What should the nurse describe?

It lubricates the movement of the thorax and lungs. The visceral pleura cover the lungs; the parietal pleura line the thorax. The visceral and parietal pleura and the small amount of pleural fluid between these two membranes serve to lubricate the thorax and lungs and permit smooth motion of the lungs within the thoracic cavity with each breath. The pleura do not allow full expansion of the lungs, prevent the lungs from collapsing, or limit lung expansion within the thoracic cavity.

A client is undergoing a thoracentesis. Which nursing action will the nurse perform following the procedure?

Maintain the client on bed rest for several hours. The client remains on bed rest and usually lies on the unaffected side for at least 1 hour to promote expansion of the lung on the affected side. The client should not ambulate following the procedure, but remain on bed rest for at least an hour. The client usually lies on the unaffected side to promote expansion of the lung on the affected side. Clients should cough forcefully when expectorating sputum for a specimen, but not following a thoracentesis.

A nurse practitioner diagnosed a patient with an infection in the maxillary sinuses. Select the area that the nurse palpated to make that diagnosis.

On the cheeks below the eyes To palpate the maxillary sinuses, the nurse should apply gentle pressure in the cheek area below the eyes, adjacent to the nose.

The nurse suctions a patient through the endotracheal tube for 20 seconds and observes dysrhythmias on the monitor. What does the nurse determine is occurring with the patient?

The patient is hypoxic from suctioning. Apply suction while withdrawing and gently rotating the catheter 360 degrees (no longer than 10-15 seconds). Prolonged suctioning may result in hypoxia and dysrhythmias, leading to cardiac arrest.

While auscultating the lungs of a client with asthma, the nurse hears a continuous, high-pitched whistling sound on expiration. The nurse will document this sound as which of the following?

Wheezes Wheezes, usually heard on expiration, are continuous, musical, high pitched, and whistle-like sounds caused by air passing through narrowed airways. Often, wheezes are associated with asthma.

The nurse is caring for a client who has been scheduled for a bronchoscopy. How should the nurse prepare the client for this procedure?

Withhold food and fluids for several hours before the test. Food and fluids are withheld for 4 to 8 hours before the test to reduce the risk of aspiration when the cough reflex is blocked by anesthesia. IV fluids, bronchodilators, and a central line are unnecessary.

A client is exhibiting signs of a pneumothorax following tracheostomy. The surgeon inserts a chest tube into the anterior chest wall. What should the nurse tell the family is the primary purpose of this chest tube?

To remove air from the pleural space Chest tubes and closed drainage systems are used to re-expand the lung involved and to remove excess air, fluid, and blood. The primary purpose of a chest tube is not to drain sputum secretions, monitor bleeding, or assist with mechanical ventilation.

A client on the medical unit has told the nurse that he is experiencing significant dyspnea, despite that he has not recently performed any physical activity. What assessment question should the nurse ask the client while preparing to perform a physical assessment?

"On a scale from 1 to 10, how bad would you rate your shortness of breath?" Gauging the severity of the client's dyspnea is an important part of the nursing process. Oral intake and nausea are much less important considerations. The nurse must perform assessment prior to interventions such as providing medication.

Computed tomography of a patient's chest is suggestive of a malignancy, but these results are not conclusive. As a result, the patient has been scheduled for a bronchoscopy. What patient education should the nurse provide for this patient regarding this diagnostic procedure?

"We'll monitor you closely after the procedure, especially until your gag reflex returns." After a bronchoscopy, it is important that the patient takes nothing by mouth until the cough reflex returns, because the preoperative sedation and local anesthesia impair the protective laryngeal reflex and swallowing for several hours. However, this normally takes a few hours, not one or two days. Bronchoscopy is normally performed under conscious sedation. Contrast solution is not used.

A client with a respiratory condition is receiving oxygen therapy. While assessing the client's PaO2, the nurse knows that the therapy has been effective based on which of the following readings?

84 mm Hg In general, clients with respiratory conditions are given oxygen therapy only to increase the arterial oxygen pressure (PaO2) back to the client's normal baseline, which may vary from 60 to 95 mm Hg.

What would the critical care nurse recognize as a condition that may indicate a client's need to have a tracheostomy?

A client requires permanent ventilation. A tracheostomy permits long-term use of mechanical ventilation to prevent aspiration of oral and gastric secretions in the unconscious or paralyzed client. Indications for a tracheostomy do not include a respiratory rate of 10 breaths per minute, symptoms of dyspnea, or respiratory acidosis.

The nurse is caring for a client with recurrent hemoptysis who has undergone a bronchoscopy. Immediately following the procedure, the nurse should complete which action?

Assess the client for a cough reflex. After the procedure, the client must take nothing by mouth until the cough reflex returns, because the preoperative sedation and local anesthesia impair the protective laryngeal reflex and swallowing. Once the client demonstrates a cough reflex, the nurse may offer ice chips and eventually fluids. The client is sedated during the procedure, not afterward. The client is not required to maintain bed rest following the procedure.

A client's plan of care specifies postural drainage. What action should the nurse perform when providing this noninvasive therapy?

Assist the client into a position that will allow gravity to move secretions. Postural drainage is usually performed two to four times per day. The client uses gravity to facilitate postural draining. The skin should be covered with a cloth or a towel during percussion to protect the skin. Postural drainage is not given in an upright position or directly following a meal.

The ED nurse is assessing the respiratory function of a teenage girl who presented with acute shortness of breath. Auscultation reveals continuous wheezes during inspiration and expiration. This finding is most suggestive of what?

Asthma Sibilant wheezes are commonly associated with asthma. They do not normally accompany pleurisy, emphysema, or pneumonia.

A new ICU nurse is observed by her preceptor entering a patient's room to suction the tracheostomy after performing the task 15 minutes before. What should the preceptor educate the new nurse to do to ensure that the patient needs to be suctioned?

Auscultate the lung for adventitious sounds. When a tracheostomy or endotracheal tube is in place, it is usually necessary to suction the patient's secretions because of the decreased effectiveness of the cough mechanism. Tracheal suctioning is performed when adventitious breath sounds are detected or whenever secretions are obviously present. Unnecessary suctioning can initiate bronchospasm and cause mechanical trauma to the tracheal mucosa.

While assessing an acutely ill client's respiratory rate, the nurse assesses four normal breaths followed by an episode of apnea lasting 20 seconds. How should the nurse document this finding?

Biot's respiration The nurse will document that the client is demonstrating a Biot's respiration pattern. Biot's respiration is characterized by periods of normal breathing (three to four breaths) followed by varying periods of apnea (usually 10 seconds to 1 minute). Cheyne-Stokes is a similar respiratory pattern, but it involves a regular cycle where the rate and depth of breathing increase and then decrease until apnea occurs. Biot's respiration is not characterized by the increase and decrease in the rate and depth, as characterized by Cheyne-Stokes. Eupnea is a normal breathing pattern of 12 to 18 breaths per minute. Bradypnea is a slower-than-normal rate (<10 breaths per minute), with normal depth and regular rhythm, and no apnea.

Postural drainage has been ordered for a client who is having difficulty mobilizing bronchial secretions. Before repositioning the client and beginning treatment, the nurse should perform what health assessment?

Chest auscultation Chest auscultation should be performed before and after postural drainage in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the therapy. Percussion and palpation are less likely to provide clinically meaningful data for the nurse. PFTs are normally beyond the scope of the nurse and are not necessary immediately before postural drainage.

The nurse assesses a patient with a heart rate of 42 and a blood pressure of 70/46. What type of hypoxia does the nurse determine this patient is displaying?

Circulatory hypoxia Given the vital signs, this client appears to be in shock. Circulatory hypoxia results from inadequate capillary circulation and may be caused by decreased cardiac output, local vascular obstruction, low-flow states such as shock, or cardiac arrest. Although tissue partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) is reduced, arterial oxygen (PaO2) remains normal. Circulatory hypoxia is corrected by identifying and treating the underlying cause. The low blood pressure is consistent with circulatory hypoxia but not consistent with the other options. Anemic hypoxia is a result of decreased effective hemoglobin concentration. Histotoxic hypoxia occurs when a toxic substance interferes with the ability of tissues to use available oxygen. Hypoxemic hypoxia results from a low level of oxygen in the blood.

What finding by the nurse may indicate that the client has chronic hypoxia?

Clubbing of the fingers Clubbing of the fingers is a change in the normal nail bed. It appears as sponginess of the nail bed and loss of the nail bed angle. It is a sign of lung disease that is found in patients with chronic hypoxic conditions, chronic lung infections, or malignancies of the lung. Cyanosis can be a very late indicator of hypoxia, but it is not a reliable sign of hypoxia. The other signs listed may represent only a temporary hypoxia.

The nurse is caring for a patient with a pulmonary disorder. What observation by the nurse is indicative of a very late symptom of hypoxia?

Cyanosis Cyanosis, a bluish coloring of the skin, is a very late indicator of hypoxia. The presence or absence of cyanosis is determined by the amount of unoxygenated hemoglobin in the blood. Cyanosis appears when there is at least 5 g/dL of unoxygenated hemoglobin.

A gerontologic nurse is analyzing the data from a client's focused respiratory assessment. The nurse is aware that the amount of respiratory dead space increases with age. What is the effect of this physiologic change?

Decreased diffusion capacity for oxygen The amount of respiratory dead space increases with age. Combined with other changes, this results in a decreased diffusion capacity for oxygen with increasing age, producing lower oxygen levels in the arterial circulation. Decreased shunting and increased ventilation do not occur with age.

A 68-year-old male patient has been admitted to the surgical unit from the PACU after surgical repair of an inguinal hernia. When performing the patient's admission assessment, the nurse notes that the patient has a barrel chest. This assessment finding should suggest to the nurse that the patient may have a history of what health problem?

Emphysema Barrel chest occurs as a result of lung hyperinflation, as in emphysema. There is an increase in the anteroposterior diameter of the thorax so that it approximates a 1:1 ratio. This assessment finding is not associated with asthma, bronchitis, or tuberculosis.

A 4 year-old client has had recurrent episodes of bronchitis during the winter months. The client spends a significant amount of time outdoors enjoying the snow and breathes primarily through the mouth. What suggestion would the nurse most likely make to the client's mother?

Help the client learn to breathe through her nose. The vascular and ciliated mucous lining of the nasal cavities warms and humidifies inspired air. The lining of the sinuses is continuous with the mucous-membrane lining of the nasal cavity. Mucus traps particles that cilia sweep toward the pharynx. Immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies in the mucus protect the lower respiratory tract from infection. The turbinates are bones that change the flow of inspired air to moisturize and warm it better.

The nurse is caring for a client with a lower respiratory tract infection. When planning a focused respiratory assessment, the nurse should know that this type of infection most often causes what?

Impaired gas exchange The lower respiratory tract consists of the lungs, which contain the bronchial and alveolar structures needed for gas exchange. A lower respiratory tract infection does not collapse bronchial structures or close the bronchial tree. An infection does not cause necrosis of lung tissues.

A client has been discharged home after thoracic surgery. The home care nurse performs the initial visit and finds the client discouraged and saddened. The client states, "I am recovering so slowly. I really thought I would be better by now." What nursing action should the nurse prioritize?

Provide emotional support to the client and family. The recovery process may take longer than the client had expected, and providing support to the client is an important task for the home care nurse. It is not necessary, based on this scenario, to schedule a visit with the physician within 24 hours, or to get a referral to a psychiatrist or a social worker.

A nurse has performed tracheal suctioning on a client who experienced increasing dyspnea prior to a procedure. When applying the nursing process, how can the nurse best evaluate the outcomes of this intervention?

Measure the client's oxygen saturation. The client's response to suctioning is usually determined by performing chest auscultation and by measuring the client's oxygen saturation. FET, incentive spirometry, and percussion are not normally used as evaluative techniques.

The nurse is caring for a client who is experiencing mild shortness of breath during the immediate postoperative period, with oxygen saturation readings between 89% and 91%. What method of oxygen delivery is most appropriate for the client's needs?

Nasal cannula A nasal cannula is used when the client requires a low to medium concentration of oxygen for which precise accuracy is not essential. The Venturi mask is used primarily for clients with COPD because it can accurately provide an appropriate level of supplemental oxygen, thus avoiding the risk of suppressing the hypoxic drive. The client's respiratory status does not require a partial- or non-rebreathing mask.

The nurse is caring for a client who has just returned to the unit after a colon resection. The client is showing signs of hypoxia. The nurse knows that this is probably caused by what?

Shunting Shunting appears to be the main cause of hypoxia after thoracic or abdominal surgery and most types of respiratory failure. Impairment of normal diffusion is a less common cause. Infection would not likely be present at this early stage of recovery and nitrogen narcosis only occurs from breathing compressed air.

In which position should the client be placed for a thoracentesis?

Sitting on the edge of the bed If possible, place the client upright or sitting on the edge of the bed with the feet supported and arms and head on a padded over-the-bed table. Other positions in which the client could be placed include straddling a chair with the arms and head resting on the back of the chair, or lying on the unaffected side with the head of the bed elevated 30 to 45 degrees (if the client is unable to assume a sitting position).

The critical care nurse and the other members of the care team are assessing the client to see if he is ready to be weaned from the ventilator. What are the most important predictors of successful weaning that the nurse should identify?

Stable vital signs and ABGs Among many other predictors, stable vital signs and ABGs are important predictors of successful weaning. Pulse oximetry must greatly exceed 80%. Nutritional status is important, but vital signs and ABGs are even more significant. Clients who are weaned may or may not have full level of consciousness.

The nurse caring for a client with an endotracheal tube recognizes several disadvantages of an endotracheal tube. What would the nurse recognize as a disadvantage of endotracheal tubes?

The cough reflex is depressed. There are several disadvantages of an endotracheal tube. Disadvantages include suppression of the client's cough reflex, thickening of secretions, and depressed swallowing reflexes. Ulceration and stricture of the larynx or trachea may develop, but bleeding is not an expected finding. The tube should not influence cognition and daily ABGs are not always required.

While assessing the client, the nurse observes constant bubbling in the water-seal chamber of the client's closed chest-drainage system. What should the nurse conclude?

The system has an air leak. Constant bubbling in the chamber often indicates an air leak and requires immediate assessment and intervention. The client with a pneumothorax will have intermittent bubbling in the water-seal chamber. If the tube is obstructed, the nurse should notice that the fluid has stopped fluctuating in the water-seal chamber.

A medical client rings her call bell and expresses alarm to the nurse, stating, "I've just coughed up this blood. That can't be good, can it?" How can the nurse best determine whether the source of the blood was the client's lungs?

Try to see if the blood is frothy or mixed with mucus. Though not definitive, blood from the lung is usually bright red, frothy, and mixed with sputum. Testing the pH of nonarterial blood samples is not common practice and would not provide important data. Similarly, oral suctioning and swabbing the client's mouth would not reveal the source.

A nurse caring for a patient with a pulmonary embolism understands that a high ventilation-perfusion ratio may exist. What does this mean for the patient?

Ventilation exceeds perfusion. A high ventilation-perfusion rate means that ventilation exceeds perfusion, causing dead space. The alveoli do not have an adequate blood supply for gas exchange to occur. This is characteristic of a variety of disorders, including pulmonary emboli, pulmonary infarction, and cardiogenic shock.

A client with a severe exacerbation of COPD requires reliable and precise oxygen delivery. Which mask will the nurse expect the health care provider to prescribe?

Venturi mask The Venturi mask provides the most accurate method of oxygen delivery. Other methods of oxygen delivery include the aerosol mask, tracheostomy collar, and face tents, but these do not match the precision of a Venturi mask.

Which type of ventilator has a preset volume of air to be delivered with each inspiration?

Volume cycled With volume-cycled ventilation, the volume of air to be delivered with each inspiration is preset. Negative-pressure ventilators exert a negative pressure on the external chest. Time-cycled ventilators terminate or control inspiration after a preset time. When the pressure-cycled ventilator cycles on, it delivers a flow of air (inspiration) until it reaches a preset pressure, and then cycles off, and expiration occurs passively.

A client is being seen in the pediatric clinic for a middle ear infection. The client's mother reports that when the client develops an upper respiratory infection, an ear infection seems quick to follow. What contributes to this event?

eustachian tubes The nasopharynx contains the adenoids and openings of the eustachian tubes. The eustachian tubes connect the pharynx to the middle ear and are the means by which upper respiratory infections spread to the middle ear. The client's infection is not caused by genetics. The oropharynx contains the tongue. The epiglottis closes during swallowing and relaxes during respiration.

The nurse auscultates the lung sounds of a client during a routine assessment. The sounds produced are harsh and cracking, sounding like two pieces of leather being rubbed together. The nurse would be correct in documenting this finding as

pleural friction rub. A pleural friction rub is heard secondary to inflammation and loss of lubricating pleural fluid. Crackles are soft, high-pitched, discontinuous popping sounds that occur during inspiration. Sonorous wheezes are deep, low-pitched rumbling sounds heard primarily during expiration. Sibilant wheezes are continuous, musical, high-pitched, whistle-like sounds heard during inspiration and expiration.

The volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath is termed

tidal volume. Tidal volume is the volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath. Residual volume is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximum expiration. Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air exhaled from the point of maximum inspiration. Expiratory reserve volume is the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a normal inhalation.