Chapter 19 (Medieval Europe)

What was the Dominican Order and who created it?

A Spanish monk named Dominic de Guzmán started the Dominican order in 1216. Like the Franciscans, the Dominicans lived a life of poverty. Their chief goal was to defend the teachings of the Church.

What happened in 1066, when the last Anglo-Saxon king of England died without an heir?

A noble named Harold Godwinson claimed the English throne. In France, a relative of the Anglo-Saxon kings, William, Duke of Normandy, said that he, not Harold, was the rightful king of England. In the fall of 1066, William and his army of Norman knights landed in England. They defeated Harold and his foot soldiers at the Battle of Hastings. William was crowned king of England and became known as William the Conqueror.

Define Heresy

A religious belief that contradicts what the church say is true. In the Middle Ages, heresy was regarded as a serious crime against the Church. In 1233, the pope set up a Church court called the Inquisition. The Inquisition's task was to question and deal with people accused of heresy.

What was the exchange between a vassal and his lord?

A vassal helped his lord in battle. In exchange for the vassal's military service, a lord gave his vassal land. The property granted to a vassal was known as a fief.

Define vassal

A vassal was a lower-ranking noble who served a lord. In return, the lord protected the vassal.

A) True or false: The castle was at the center of the estate. B) What were the two parts of a castle?

A) True B) Every castle had two parts. The first was a motte, or steep-sided hill. The second part was the bailey, an open space next to the motte. Both parts were encircled by high walls. The castle keep, its central building, was constructed on the motte.

Who conquered Kievan Rus?

About 1240, Mongol warriors from Central Asia conquered Kievan Rus. The Slavic city of Novgorod was the only major city to be spared attack by the Mongols. However, Novgorod's rulers had to pay tribute to the khan, the Mongol leader, and accept the Mongols as their rulers.

What happened following Charlemagne's death?

After Charlemagne died in 814, his empire did not last long. It was soon divided into three kingdoms.These Frankish kingdoms were prey to outside attacks. In the 800s and 900s, waves of invaders swept across Europe.

This man replaced Martel after he died...

After Charles Martel died, his son Pepin became mayor of the palace. With the support and blessing of the pope, Pepin became king of the Franks. In return, Pepin was expected to help the pope. In 754, Pepin forced a Germanic group called the Lombards to leave Rome. He then gave the pope a large strip of Lombard land in Italy. These lands became known as the Papal States.

This man replaced Pepin...

After Pepin died in 768, his son Charles became king of the Franks. In the years that followed, Charles sent his armies into neighboring lands. He nearly doubled the size of his kingdom to include what is today Germany, France, northern Spain, and most of Italy. By 800, Charles's kingdom had grown into an empire. For the first time since the fall of Rome, most Western Europeans were ruled by one government. His conquests won Charles the name of Charlemagne, or Charles the Great.

What other improvement in agriculture was made?

Another improvement in agriculture was crop rotation. Peasants used three fields rather than two to keep the soil fertile. One field was planted in the fall, a second one in springtime, and the third field was left unplanted. With this system, only one-third of the land was left unused at a time, rather than one-half. More crops could be grown as a result. As food production increased, the population of Europe grew.

What was his major writing piece?

Aquinas's major work was Summa Theologica, or a summary of knowledge on theology. In this book, Aquinas followed a logical order of scholarly investigation. First, he asked a question such as, "Does God exist?" Next, he quoted sources that offered opposing opinions and presented ways of reconciling these views. Finally, he drew his own conclusions.

What was the result of increased trade?

As trade increased, merchants demanded payment in gold and silver coins. People again began using money to buy goods. Some merchants set up banks.

What happened after William was crowned king?

At first, the Anglo-Saxons resisted William's rule. To stop the Anglo-Saxon revolts, William seized the land of Anglo-Saxon nobles and divided it among his Norman knights. William wanted to learn as much as possible about his new kingdom. To decide taxes, he carried out the first census since Roman times. Every person and farm animal in England was counted and recorded in the Domesday Book.

Describe the typical background of nuns and name the most famous one.

Between a.d. 1000 and 1200, many women joined female religious orders. Most of these women, called nuns, came from wealthy noble families. One famous nun of this period was Hildegard of Bingen. She was the abbess, or leader, of a convent in Germany and wrote music for the church. Most composers of church music at that time were men.

In the late 800s, Vikings from Scandinavia attacked who?

Britain, where the Anglo-Saxons had founded many small kingdoms. King Alfred of Wessex, later known as Alfred the Great, united the Anglo-Saxons and halted the Viking advance. The kingdom that Alfred united became known as "Angleland," or England.

How many many territories were European kingdoms divided into? Dozens, hundreds, over fifty, or thousands

By 1000, Europe's kingdoms were divided into hundreds of feudal territories. Most of these territories were small. A noble's castle was the center of each territory.

How did feudalism make Europe safer?

By 1100, feudalism had made Europe safer. Nobles repaired roads, arrested bandits, and enforced the law. Meanwhile, new technology enabled people to produce more food and goods. Europe's population grew for the first time since the fall of Rome.

This religion strongly influenced society during the Middle Ages...

Catholic Christianity

Who was the palace mayor that wanted to strengthen Catholic Christianity in the lands of the old Western Roman Empire. He fought and defeated the Muslims along the way.

Charles Martel

Why were stained glass window important in churches?

Colorful stained glass windows often presented scenes from the life and teachings of Jesus. They also let in sunlight, which symbolized the divine light of God.

Who was elected King of Germany in 936?

Duke Otto. Germanic forces defeated the Magyars and freed the pope from the control of Roman nobles. To reward Otto, the pope crowned him emperor of the Romans in 962. Otto's territory became known as the Holy Roman Empire. It included most of present-day Germany and northern Italy.

Who influenced the philosophical beliefs of the Europeans?

During the 1100s, the ideas of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle had a major influence on Europe. After the fall of Rome in the late 400s, Aristotle had been almost forgotten in Europe. Muslim libraries, however, had preserved copies of his books. In the 1100s, Muslim and Jewish scholars reintroduced Aristotle to Europe. The ancient philosopher's ideas disturbed some Christian thinkers. Aristotle used reason, rather than faith, to reach his conclusions.

Who were the most powerful people in Europe?

During the Middle Ages, nobles were the most powerful people in Europe. Great lords had more land and wealth than ordinary knights. Yet, a shared belief in the feudal order united lords and knights in defending their society.

How did Edward I, King of England, affect the development of parliament?

Edward I, king of England in the late 1200s, increased the authority of his council. This group of lords, church leaders, knights, and townspeople became known as Parliament. Parliament came to be divided into two groups—an upper house and lower house. The growth of Parliament marked an important step toward representative government.

What happened in the aftermath of William's death?

English kings further strengthened their power. From 1154 to 1189, King Henry II ruled England as well as most of Wales, and Ireland. He was also a feudal lord in France and Scotland. Some of the French lands belonged to his wife, Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine.

Phillip's goal was to what?

Expand the French monarchy's wealth and power. At the beginning of Philip's reign, the king of England ruled feudal lands in western France. Philip fought wars against the English and gained some of these territories. Philip IV wanted to raise taxes to pay for his wars. In 1302, he gained approval for this plan from representatives of the three estates, or classes, of French society. The first estate was the clergy, or priests. Nobles made up the second estate, and townspeople and peasants were the third estate. This meeting began the Estates-General, France's first parliament. The Estates- General never became as powerful as Parliament in England.

True of false: Charlemagne became the King of Babylonia.

False. Charlemagne became the Emperor of Rome. Charlemagne was concerned because the pope crowned him and he did not want people to think the pope had the power to choose who was emperor.

True or false: Charlemagne was focused on expanding and fortifying his empire through conquests.

False. Charlemagne wanted to advance learning in his kingdom. He had tried late in life to learn to write and wanted his people to be educated too. He established a school for the children of government officials. Students at the school studied religion, Latin, music, literature, and arithmetic.

True or false: Women landowners were official citizens.

False. Only males were considered citizens. In many cities, the citizens elected the members of a city council. These elected officials served as lawmakers and judges.

True or False: The Frankish people were protected by mountain ranges, thus shielding them from Muslim, Magyar, and Viking invaders.

False. Their attacks also weakened the Frankish kingdoms. By the 900s, the eastern Frankish kingdom, known as Germany, became a collection of small territories ruled by nobles. In 911, a group of these nobles sought to unite Germany by electing a king.

What was the Spanish Inquisition?

Ferdinand and Isabella, however, believed that some of the Jews secretly practiced Judaism. To force obedience to the Catholic Church, the rulers put the Spanish Inquisition into place. The Spanish Inquisition tried and tortured thousands of people who were accused of being disloyal to the Catholic Church in Spain. In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella ordered Jews to convert or leave Spain. Most Jews left to avoid the charge of heresy. After Spain conquered Granada in 1492, Muslims were given the same choice. Rather than convert to Catholicism, most Muslims left for North Africa.

What was feudalism based on?

Feudalism was based on ties of loyalty and duty among members of the nobility. Nobles were both lords and vassals (next slide is definition). A lord was a high-ranking noble who had power over others.

What happened to the Franks after Clovis died?

Frankish kings lost much of their power.

What were the two types of peasants?

Freemen and serfs. Freemen paid the noble for the right to farm the land. They worked only on their own land and had rights under the law. They moved wherever and whenever they wished.

What type of group was the one that overthrew the Western Roman Empire?

Germanic

Who settled in modern England?

Germanic groups known as Angles and Saxons settled there. In time, they became the Anglo-Saxons.

About 1150, builders began to construct churches in the ____ style.

Gothic. They replaced Romanesque heavy walls with flying buttresses. These stone arches extended off the outside walls of the church and supported the weight of the building. They made it possible to build churches with thinner walls and large stained glass windows. Gothic churches were taller and had more space than Romanesque churches.

What did Pope Gregory VII do to anger Henry IV?

Gregory VII declared that only the pope had the power to appoint high-ranking Church officials. Pope Gregory's order angered Henry IV, the Holy Roman emperor. For many years, the Holy Roman emperor had chosen bishops in Germany. Henry insisted on naming his own bishops. Gregory then declared that Henry was no longer emperor and excommunicated him. This meant that he no longer had the rights of church membership and could not go to heaven.

Describe medieval universities.

Groups of students and teachers created the first universities to educate scholars. Medieval university students studied grammar, public speaking, logic, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. Teachers read from a text and discussed it, while students took notes on small, portable chalkboards called slates. Students did not have books because books were rare before the European printing press was created in the 1400s.

In 988, the Rus ruler, Vladimir did what?

He married the sister of the Byzantine emperor. Vladimir became an Eastern Orthodox Christian. Soon, priests from Constantinople came to teach the people of Kievan Rus religious rituals and the art of painting icons.

What did Henry do after the German nobles supported the pope?

Henry changed his mind. He traveled to Italy and begged the pope for forgiveness. Gregory forgave Henry, but the German nobles chose a new emperor. When Gregory accepted the new emperor, Henry seized Rome and named a new pope.

What did Henry do to change court systems forever?

Henry set up a central royal court with lawyers and judges. Circuit judges, who traveled across the country to hear cases, brought the king,s law to all parts of England. The courts created a body of common law, or law that was the same throughout the whole kingdom. Common law helped unite England by replacing laws that differed from place to place. Henry also set up juries of citizens to settle disputes. Traveling circuit judges met with a grand jury. It decided if people should be accused of a crime. Next came a trial jury to decide whether a person was innocent or guilty.

What held Charlemagne's empire together.

His forceful personality.

Define anti-Semitism

Hostility toward or discrimination against Jews

During the 1000s, the Byzantine Empire in the east came under attack. Who defeated the Byzantines?

In 1071, an army of Muslim Turks defeated the Byzantines and seized control of most of the Byzantine lands in Asia Minor.

What did the pope ask of European nobles?

In 1095, the pope asked Europe's nobles to begin a crusade, or holy war, against the Muslim Turks. He urged them to capture Jerusalem and free the Holy Land, where Jesus had lived, from the Muslims.

What was the outcome of these rebellions?

In 1215, the nobles met with King John at Runnymede, a nearby meadow. There they forced John to put his seal on a document called the Magna Carta, or the Great Charter. The Magna Carta placed limits on the king's power. The king could collect taxes only if a group of nobles called the Great Council agreed.

How was Spain created?

In 1469, Prince Ferdinand of Aragon married Princess Isabella of Castile. They united their kingdoms into one Catholic country called Spain.

Who was the King of the Franks

In 481, Clovis became king of the Franks. Fifteen years later, he became the first Germanic ruler to accept Catholic Christianity. Before long, nearly all of the Franks became Catholic.

What were Thomas Aquinas' thoughts on government?

In his writings about government, Thomas Aquinas stressed the concept of natural law. According to this idea, some laws have authority from human nature. Such laws do not have to be made by governments. Aquinas taught that natural law gives people certain basic rights. These include the right to live, to learn, to worship, and to marry. The ideas of Aquinas continue to influence human societies to the present day.

What was the primary language in Medieval Europe?

In medieval times, Latin was the language of educated people, both for speaking and writing. Latin was also the language of the Church and of university teachers and scholars.

Who is known as scholasticism's greatest thinker?

In the 1200s, an Italian Dominican friar named Thomas Aquinas became scholasticism's greatest thinker. His goal was to find agreement between Aristotle's teachings and Christian teachings. Aquinas taught that truths arrived at through reason could not conflict with truths arrived at through faith. Reason, unaided by faith, could discover truths about the physical universe but not spiritual truths.

Describe the basement, ground floor, and great hall.

In the basement of the keep, tools and food were stored. On the ground floor were kitchens and stables. Above these was a great hall. The lord held court and met visitors here.

Who was Ivan III?

Ivan III became the ruler of Moscow in 1462. He married Sophia, a niece of the Byzantine emperor. Ivan adopted the lavish style of Byzantine rulers and was referred to as czar. The Russian word czar, like Caesar in Latin, means "emperor." By 1480, Ivan III had finally driven the Mongols from Moscow and Russian territory. He turned next to the north and west to add territory. By then, the people of Moscow, now known as Russians, had made great strides toward establishing a huge empire.

In medieval Europe, ____ became scapegoats, or people blamed for other people's problems. ___ were often accused in times of trouble, such as famine, plague, or economic decline.

Jews

In the 800s, the eastern Slavs began to expand what city?

Kiev. The medieval state of Kievan Rus grew wealthy from its river trade with Scandinavia and the Byzantine Empire.

What would King John, Henry's son, do as king?

King John increased taxes in England and punished his enemies without trials. English nobles began to rebel against the king.

What problem did Europeans face regarding food?

Manors usually produced only enough food to support the peasants and the lord's household. However, over time, Europeans developed new ways to increase the number of crops they could grow, as well as how much the crops produced.

What was a result of separation and isolation?

Many cultures developed

This (it's an act between the king and pope) caused disagreements.

Many monasteries became wealthy. As their influence increased, abbots became active in political affairs. Kings wanted Church leaders to obey them. Popes, however, believed kings should obey the Church.

How did medieval society's value of religion affect their architecture?

Many of the new buildings were churches and monasteries. Church leaders, wealthy merchants, and nobles supported the building of large churches called cathedrals. Soaring above the rooftops of medieval towns, cathedrals were built in either Romanesque or Gothic styles.

What are sacraments?

Medieval Christians also took part in church rituals called sacraments. The most important sacrament was Holy Communion during mass. People received bread and wine to remind them of the death of Jesus. Only clergy could give people the sacraments.

Describe life in a medieval city.

Medieval cities were surrounded by stone walls. Inside the walls, stone public buildings and wooden houses were jammed close together. Candles and fireplaces were used for light and heat. Towns could be unhealthy places. Wood and coal fires in people's homes and shops filled the air with ashes and smoke. Sewers were open, and there was little concern for cleanliness. City women kept house, cared for children, and managed the family's money. Wives often helped their husbands in their trade, sometimes carrying on the trade after their husbands' deaths.

The universities of today trace their origins to the ________.

Middle Ages. Two of the first medieval universities were in Bologna, Italy, and Paris, France. Universities also were founded in England at Oxford and Cambridge. By 1500, Europe had 80 universities.

Who made (and what are) illuminations?

Monks and monasteries provided schools and hospitals. They taught carpentry and weaving, and they developed improvements in farming. Many monks copied Christian writings as well as Roman and Greek works. They also made illuminations, which are manuscripts decorated with beautiful lettering and miniature religious paintings. These monks helped preserve knowledge of the classical and early Christian worlds.

Where did monks live?

Monks lived in communities headed by abbots. Women called nuns lived in their own monasteries called convents. Convents were headed by abbesses.

During the period of Mongol rule, many Slavs moved north from Kiev and built settlements in the area that is now Russia. One new settlement was Moscow. How did Moscow become a large city?

Moscow became a large city that prospered because it was at the crossroads of several major trade routes.

Why was it hard to conquer lots of Europe?

Mountain ranges and rivers separated people. Thus independent territories grew.

Define fjord

Much of Scandinavia has a long, jagged coastline. It has many fjords, or narrow inlets of the sea. The fjords, surrounded by steep cliffs or slopes, were carved by glaciers long ago. The Viking people, known as Norsemen or "north men," lived in villages near the fjords.

Who invaded? (Hint: There were 3)

Muslims from North Africa raided France and Italy. Fierce nomads called Magyars from Hungary invaded eastern parts of France and Italy. Vikings launched raids from their homeland in Scandinavia.

Under the feudal system, towns were often part of the territory belonging to a noble. What was the result of this?

Nobles tried to control town affairs. Townspeople, however, disliked owing taxes and services to nobles. They wanted freedom to make their own laws. As their wealth increased, townspeople forced nobles to grant them basic rights. These included the right to buy and sell property and the freedom from having to serve in the army.

Who ran the estate when nobles were away from their castle?

Nobles were often at war and away from their castles. In their absence, their wives or daughters ran the estates.

This invention was made by Europeans to increase the number of crops they could grow, as well as how much the crops produced?

One major improvement was a heavy wheeled plow with an iron blade. The new plow made deeper cuts in the dense clay soil. The heavier plow meant peasant farmers spent less time in the fields. The horse collar was another important invention. The collar enabled a horse to pull a plow. Horses could pull plows faster than oxen could. This invention made it possible for peasants to produce more food.

What was one of the most important religious orders?

One of the most important new orders was the Cistercian order. It was founded in 1098 by monks who were unhappy with wealthy monasteries and wanted a simpler, more spiritual way of life. Cistercian monks worshipped, prayed, and farmed the land. They developed new farming methods. Bernard of Clairvaux was a famous Cistercian monk. Bernard supported the Second Crusade, advised the pope, and took the side of the poor against the rich.

In the 400s, a Christian priest named ____ traveled to Ireland. There, ____ spread Christianity and founded churches and monasteries, or religious houses.

Patrick

Pope Gregory did what following Patrick's actions?

Patrick inspired Pope Gregory I, or Gregory the Great, to spread Christianity. Gregory asked monks to become missionaries- people who are sent out to teach their religion. In 597, Gregory sent 40 monks to Britain to teach Christianity. Other monks spread Christianity, so that by 1050, most Western Europeans had become Catholic Christians.

What did peasants make and what did nobles seek?

Peasants began to make cloth and metal products. Nobles also sought luxury items, such as sugar, spices, silks, and dyes. These goods came from the East.

What work did peasants do?

Peasants worked year round. In late winter and spring, they planted crops of beans, peas, barley, and oats. In early summer, they weeded fields and sheared sheep. In late summer, they harvested grain. They also slaughtered livestock and salted the meat for winter storage. Many peasants tended small vegetable gardens. Besides working in the fields, peasant women raised children and prepared the family's food. They made dark, heavy bread, which peasants ate with vegetables, milk, nuts, and fruits. They also ate eggs and meat, washed down with ale.

During the Middle Ages, the vast number of Europeans were what? (Social class)

Peasants- living and working on manors.

What important role did saints play in life?

People prayed to the saints to ask for God's favor. Mary, the mother of Jesus, was the most honored of all the saints.

What were the two biggest advantages to having rivers throughout Europe?

Protection and trade

Early medieval churches were Romanesque. Describe this style.

Romanesque is a style that combined the features of Roman and Byzantine buildings. Romanesque churches were rectangular buildings with long, rounded ceilings called barrel vaults. These ceilings were supported by heavy walls and thick pillars set close together. The churches' small windows let in little light.

By 1100, a new way of thinking called _____ was changing the study of theology. Describe their beliefs.

Scholasticism. Its followers wanted to show that ideas accepted on faith did not have to contradict ideas developed by reason.

Describe the lifestyle of a serf.

Serfs worked long hours in the fields and did many services for the nobles. They spent three days of the week working the noble's land and the rest of the week farming their own. However, they had to give part of their own crops to the noble. They also had to pay him for the use of the village's mill, bread oven, and winepress. It was not easy for serfs to gain their freedom. One way was to escape to the towns. If a serf was not caught and remained in a town for more than a year, he or she was considered free. By the end of the Middle Ages, serfs in many areas were allowed to buy their freedom.

Most peasants, however, were what?

Serfs. Serfs and their descendants were tied to the manor. They could not own property, move to another area, or marry without the noble's permission. Serfs were not enslaved, however. Nobles could not sell them or take away the land they farmed to support themselves. Nobles were also expected to protect their serfs.

What happened after European towns grew larger?

Several cities became wealthy from trade. The cities of Venice, Pisa, and Genoa in Italy built fleets of trading ships. They became major trading centers. By 1200, these Italian cities controlled the profitable Mediterranean trade with the Byzantine Empire. Meanwhile, Flanders—a region that is today part of Belgium—became a center of trade on Europe's northern coast. Towns in Flanders, such as Bruges and Ghent, were known for wool. Merchants from all over Western Europe traveled to these towns to trade their goods for woolen cloth.

What are the two types of vernacular literature?

Starting in the 1100s, writers created much new literature in the vernacular. Educated people became interested in this literature. One popular type of vernacular literature was troubadour poetry. Troubadour poets often sang love poems, especially about the love of a knight for a lady. A second important type of vernacular literature was the heroic epic. Epics often tell the story of bold knights fighting in the service of kings and lords. The Song of Roland is an epic that was written in France about 1100. In this tale, a brave knight named Roland fights in the service of Charlemagne against the Muslims.

What happened after the fall of Charlemagne's empire?

Strong governments collapsed in Western Europe. Kings lost much of their power. Local land-owning nobles became increasingly important in political affairs. They raised armies. They also collected taxes and imposed laws on the people living on their lands.

This battle (led by Charles Martel) stopped the advance of Islam into Western Europe. It also ensured that Christianity would remain Western Europe's major religion...

The Battle of Tours

The great famine was only the beginning of troubles. During the 1300s, a plague spread from Asia across Europe. What was this plague?

The Black Death, as the disease was known, was probably bubonic plague. This illness is caused by a type of bacteria spread by fleas. Rats carry the fleas. The Black Death probably began in central Asia and spread to other places through trade. It first broke out in China in the 1330s. Between 40 and 60 million people eventually died, nearly half of the Chinese population.

What role did Pope Urban II play in this battle?

The Byzantine emperor asked Pope Urban II for military aid to save his Christian empire from Muslim forces. The pope agreed to help the Byzantines. He hoped that, in return, the Eastern Orthodox Church would again unite with the Roman Catholic Church and accept him as its religious leader.

What effects did the Crusades have on Western Europe?

The Crusades brought Western Europeans into contact with Byzantines and Muslims. As a result, Western Europeans gained new knowledge. In architecture, they learned how to build domes and create mosaics. They discovered how to build better ships and make more accurate maps. They also learned how to use the compass to tell direction. Wealthy people in Western Europe began to demand eastern goods such as spices, sugar, lemons, and silk.

How did the Crusades affect feudalism?

The Crusades, however, weakened feudalism. Nobles who joined the Crusades sold their lands and freed their serfs. This reduced their power. Kings were able to build stronger central governments.

What separated the islands of Britain and Ireland from the rest of Europe?

The English Channel

Who was the strongest Germanic group?

The Franks

Who is Joan of Arc?

The French prince Charles wanted to take back French lands held by the English. In 1429, a 17-year-old French peasant girl named Joan came to his palace. Joan persuaded Charles to let her go with a French army to the city of Orléans. Joan's faith stirred the French soldiers. They defeated the English and freed the city. Shortly after, with Joan at his side, Charles was crowned king. A few months later, however, the English army captured Joan. The English accused her of being a witch. Joan was burned at the stake for heresy. Later known as Joan of Arc, she became a French national hero and Catholic saint. Joan's courage led the French to rally around their king. By 1453, French armies had driven the English out of most of France. Victory gave the French a new sense of loyalty to their country. French kings used that loyalty to strengthen their power.

The Magna Carta relied on what principle?

The Magna Carta relied on the feudal idea that the king and his noble vassals both had certain rights and duties. Over time, however, the Magna Carta helped strengthen the idea that all people, regardless of rank, have rights, and that the power of government should be limited.

Who did Charles Martel defeat at the Battle of the Tours

The Muslims

How did Norman and Anglo-Saxson cultures "get along"?

The Normans who ruled England kept many Anglo-Saxon laws and practices. However, they also brought many customs from mainland Europe. Under William's rule, officials and nobles in England spoke French, the language of Normandy. They built castles, cathedrals, and monasteries in the Norman style. Anglo-Saxons learned new skills from Norman weavers and artisans. Yet, they still spoke their own Anglo-Saxon language, which later became English. As more and more Normans and Anglo-Saxons married, their customs merged into a new English culture.

What happened after Muslim forces retook Edessa?

The Second Crusade began.

What happened after the Mongols spared Novgorod?

The city faced attacks from the west by Germans and Swedes. In 1240, Novgorod forces led by a prince named Alexander Nevsky defeated these invaders.

What did knights follow by?

The code of chivalry. These rules stated that a knight was to be brave and obey his lord. A knight was also required to respect women of noble birth, honor the Church, and help people. Many of today's ideas about manners come from the code of chivalry.

Define vernacular

The everyday spoken language of a region Besides Latin, each region in Europe had its own local language. People used this language, called the vernacular, in everyday life. Among the vernacular languages in Europe were early versions of English, Italian, Spanish, French, and German.

The first scholastic thinker was who?

The first scholastic thinker was Anselm, who served as archbishop of Canterbury in England from 1093 to 1109. Anselm became known for his reasoning about the existence of God.

Nobles, knights, and peasants (or farmers) depended on ____ for everything they needed.

The land. The lands of a fief consisted of manors. A manor was a farming community that a noble ran and peasants worked. It usually consisted of the noble's castle, the surrounding fields, and a peasant village.

Medieval Europe enjoyed prosperity and growth during the 1200s. Then, early in the next century, disaster struck. Extremely cold winters and rainy summers created miserable conditions. Crops rotted in the fields, and herds of livestock died from diseases. Soon, there was not enough food for Europe's growing population. What was this event?

The result was a great famine in northern Europe that lasted from about 1315 to 1322. During this time, many people died from starvation and epidemics.

What effect did the rise of trade and cities have on medieval Europe?

The rise of trade and cities created a new middle class in medieval Europe. People in the middle class had some wealth as a result of their roles as merchants, bankers, or artisans. They became important leaders in the cities.

Describe the relationship between Moscow and the Mongols.

The rulers of Moscow learned to cooperate with the Mongols. In return, the Mongols gave them the right to collect taxes from other Slav territories. If a territory could not provide soldiers or tax money, Moscow's rulers took control of it. In this way, Moscow was able to gradually expand its territory.

How did the conflict end?

The struggle continued until 1122, when a new German king and a new pope agreed that only the pope could choose bishops, but only the king or emperor could give them government posts. This agreement, called the Concordat of Worms, was signed in the German city of Worms. A concordat is an agreement between the pope and the ruler of a country.

In 843, Charlemagne's empire was split into three parts. What was the western part?

The western part became the kingdom of France. In 987, the west Frankish nobles made Hugh Capet their king. Hugh began the Capetian dynasty of French kings. Capetian kings controlled only the area around Paris, the capital. Many French nobles had more power than the kings did. This began to change when Philip II became the king of France in 1180.

What did guilds do?

They controlled business and trade in a town. The guild set the price for a product or service. Guilds also set and enforced standards of quality for products. In addition, guilds decided who could join a trade. An apprentice, or trainee, learned a trade from a master artisan who provided room and board but no wages. After completing this training, the apprentice became a journeyman who worked under a master for a daily wage.

In Eastern Europe, people called the Slavs did what?

They established villages and towns along the rivers of that region. The Slavs consisted of three important groups: the southern Slavs, the western Slavs, and the eastern Slavs.

Eventually, what did medieval towns begin to do?

They set up their own governments.

Who won the Second Crusade and who led the victory?

This time, the Muslims easily defeated the Europeans. In 1174, led by a brilliant general named Saladin, Muslims recaptured Jerusalem.

Describe the First Crusade.

Thousands of European soldiers on horseback and on foot headed east on the First Crusade. They reached Jerusalem in 1099. In a fierce battle with Muslims, they stormed the city. The crusaders conquered several regions. They set up four states controlled by Europe: the Kingdom of Jerusalem in the Holy Land, Edessa and Antioch in Asia Minor, and Tripoli in what is now Lebanon. These states were surrounded by Muslim territory. They depended on supplies from the Italian cities of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice.

Describe how students earned their degrees.

To get a degree, students took oral exams after four to six years. They could earn a bachelor of arts and later a master of arts. In about ten more years, a student could earn a doctor's degree in law, medicine, or theology—the study of religion and God. People with doctor's degrees were officially able to teach but could also pursue other careers. For example, the monk Roger Bacon turned from teaching theology to studying the natural world. His interest in using experiments to test ideas helped pave the way for the rise of modern science.

What made the Black Death easy to spread?

Trade between China, India, the Middle East, and Europe was greatly encouraged by the Mongols. Merchants used the Silk Road and other trade routes. Expanded trade also made it possible for the Black Death to spread quickly. More and more traders used the Silk Road and other routes linking Asia and Europe. As a result, rat-infested caravans and ships carried the disease from region to region. The plague then traveled to India and spread to Muslim territories.

Trade encouraged what?

Trade encouraged townspeople to produce many different kinds of products. Craftspeople organized guilds, or business groups. Each craft had its own guild.

What were trade fairs and what was traded at them?

Trade fairs were established in northern France. At these fairs, northern European merchants bartered their products. They traded furs, tin, honey, and wool for swords and cloth from northern Italy and silks, sugar, and spices from Asia.

What happened after the Roman Empire collapsed?

Trade throughout Europe sharply declined. Bridges and roads fell into ruin. Law and order largely disappeared. Most people spent their entire lives in the farming villages where they were born. They knew very little about the rest of the world.

The Crusades and the rise of strong governments made medieval Europeans more confident and secure. What was a result of this?

Trade, banking, and businesses thrived. A better economy meant more money to spend on building and learning.

True or false: Conflicts separated Italy and Germany from uniting

True. Frederick I and Frederick II, tried to bring Germany and Italy under a strong central government during the 1100s and 1200s. The popes did not want the emperor to control them. They joined with Italy's cities to resist the emperors' forces.

True or false: The Vikings not only raiders raiders, but explorers and settlers too.

True. They sailed across the Atlantic, settled the islands of Greenland and Iceland, and even landed in North America. For a short time, Viking groups also lived in England. They founded the territory of Normandy in northwestern France and settled in parts of what are now Russia and Ukraine.

Name two well known orders of friars.

Two well-known orders of friars were the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The Franciscan order was founded in 1209 by Francis of Assisi. Franciscans were known for their cheerfulness and deep love of nature.

What caused the decline of the Anglo-Saxsons?

Unfortunately for England, the Anglo-Saxon kings who followed Alfred were generally weak rulers.

What are friars?

Until the 1200s, most people in religious orders spent their time inside their monasteries in prayer or at work. They lived a simple life separate from the world. In the 1200s, several new religious orders were created. The men in these religious orders were called friars. Friars were different from other monks. They left their monasteries and took Christianity to people in the towns. Friars preached, served as missionaries, and aided the poor. Friars could not own property or keep any personal wealth.

What natural elements (ie fire) were used to enhance agriculture?

Water and wind power also became important during the Middle Ages. Europe's rivers provided power for water mills to grind grain into flour. In places without rivers, windmills could be used for grinding grain, pumping water, and sawing wood.

How did the Black Death affect the economy?

With so many deaths, trade declined. Wages rose steeply because of a high demand for workers. Fewer people, though, meant less demand for food, so food prices fell sharply. Landlords now had to pay scarce workers more. Some peasants began to pay rent instead of providing services. Serfs gained more rights. Like the Crusades, the Black Death weakened feudalism.

a) Define feudalism b) What led to feudalism?

a) political order; under feudalism, nobles governed and protected people in return for services b) When invaders swept through Europe, people turned to the nobles for protection. Nobles governed and protected the people in return for services, such as fighting in a noble's army or farming the land.

Click this link for map of different groups invading and settling in Europe.

http://connected.mcgraw-hill.com/secure/0QPVRG88771JCCXCR1D4D713Q4