Chapter 19: Sexual Assault

Describe how partner violence follows an escalating cycle

- intimate terrorism tends to follow an upward spiral of escalating violence that progresses through different stages. -This cycle is commonly referred to as the cycle of abuse and helps explain why so many women in particular get trapped in abusive relationships. -Each time the cycle is repeated it tends to become shorter. -Eventually, violence may occur weekly/daily as it grows more intense over time - Tension-building phase(weeks), violent incident, reconciliation phase(months), calm

limitations of Biosocial theories

--The major problem with this theory is that if true, it would predict relatively uniform rates of rape as well as aggression across all societies, and yet this predicted uniformity absolutely does not occur. -A slight variation of this model suggests that rape evolved as a byproduct of male aggression and thirst for dominance.

Prevalence Sexual violence

-1 out of every 6 american women has been the victim of an attempted or completed rape in her lifetime. (14.8% completed, 2.8% attempted). -50% of transgender people have been sexually assaulted at one point in their lives -Native american women are twice as likely to be raped as any other population -3% (1 in 33) men have experienced attempted or completed rape in their lifetime

Effects of Sexual assault on victims

-6 times more likely to experience PTSD. PTSD from rape may be called rape trauma syndrome -3 times more likely to experience depression -13 times more likely to abuse alcohol -26 times more likely to abuse drugs -4 times more likely to contemplate suicide

Role of drugs and alcohol

-Alcohol is often a factor of sexual assault. It is the most common "date rape" drug. -Research suggests that at least half of these incidents involve alcohol use and that the majority of rapes of college females occur when the victim is too intoxicated to resist. ("incapacitated rape"). -Alcohol can also facilitate rape by reducing the perpetrator's inhibitions. -Rate of alcohol - 53% perps, 42% victims -Intoxicated female victims judged more responsible. Intoxicated male perps judged less responsible.

Reasons for not reporting sexual assault

-Fear of retaliation -Wanting to protect the perpetrator -Concern for privacy and reputation -Feelings of shame or self-blame -Fear of being shamed or punished by others -Concern that they wouldn't be believed/that no action would be taken -Concern that the reporting/prosecution processes would cause additional trauma

Overcome internal inhibitors

-Justify one's own actions to one's self -Belief in rape myths - "she wanted it" -Sense of entitlement - "she owes me" -Retribution - "she deserves it" -Belief that "might is right"

Perceptions of female and male role

-Malamuth's work shows the tendency for rapy myths - e.g., media portrayals of women enjoying instances of aggressive, non-consensual sex - to cause men to be more accepting of rape. -For example, males who read a scene that portrayed victims as becoming sexually aroused (versus disgusted) during non-consensual sex (a common rape myth) were more likely to belive that a victim experienced pleasure during a subsequent rape portrayal. In sum, media contributes to males' acceptance of rape myths and violence against women when media depicts sexual aggression against women in a positive light. -. Rapist's perception of male role: extreme importance of male peer approval; sex is a game - winners and losers; need to prove manhood - power over the weak; need to prove heterosexuality

Rape trauma syndrome

-PTSD produces a specific set of long-term effects known collectively as rape trauma syndrome, the symptoms of which include the following: -Feelings of numbness or disconnection, alternating with flashbacks and preoccupation with the rape incident -Self-blame,Anxiety,Depression, Anger, Sleeplessness, Inability to concentrate, Headaches, Digestive disturbances

Find opportunities/Select victims

-Perceive females as inferior -Defining desirable feminie traits - passivity, compliance -Prefer female dependency/vulnerability - financial, emotional -Prefer small physical size, lack of physical strength or skill

Overcome external inhibitions

-Perceive social support, tolerance for actions -Perceive actions as "private," "personal," "family business" -Social boundaries - patriarchy, marriage -Male dominance structures - military, sports, celebrities -Male group bonds - "boys being boys"

What causes men to sexually harass?

-Research suggest that rather than being motivated by sexual desire, sexual harassment mostly reflects an attempt to achieve power over another person. -Things that cause people to sexually harass include: a lack of empathy, an inability to take the less powerful person's perspective, a belief in traditional gender sex roles, a tendency toward dominance/authoritarianism, and a tendency to associate dominance and power with sex. -Studies suggest that environmental factors also play a huge role.

Reporting and prosecution of Sexual Assult

-Sexual assault is the most under-reported crime -According to the BJS, 75% of sexual assaults are not reported to the police -More than 90% of sexual assault victims on college cmapuses do not report the assault -50% of arrests lead to conviction -98% of rapists will never go to jail -The prevalence of false reporting is between 2% and 10% (similar to that of other felonies)

-Main Ideas of Biosocial theories -are males pre-programmed to rape? Is is part of their evolutionary DNA?

-The vast majority of researchers will answer this question with a resounding "NO." -"Forced copulation" is common among a wide range of animal species, including our close primate relatives, such as orangutans. -Biosocial models suggest that the desire to rape in humans results from a similar evolutionary adaptation and is a function of hyperactive male sexual desire (i.e., "testosterone poisoning") coupled with a male's perceived chances of being caught/punished. It also suggests that males will be more likely to rape when they have restricted access to willing female partners.

Motivation

-Willingness to have sex by any means -Prove self - establish masculinity, heterosexuality -Prove powerlessness of victim - desire to maintain control over "property" -Sexual aggression, paraphilia -Misogyny - unresolved anger at women

How does sexual harassment effect children/schools?

-approximately half of children between ages 7 and 12 experience some form of sexual harassment during the school year. -Most common types take the form of unwelcome sexual jokes, comments or gestures, being called 'gay' or 'lesbian' in a negative way and being shown sexually suggestive pictures against one's will. -Thankfully, schools are starting to be more aware of sexual harassment in school, mostly due to legal cases that have been successgully brought forth by students.

Common couple violence

-arises in the context of a specific argument in which one or both of the partners lash out physically at the other. -This type of violence has a lower per-couple frequency, is not as likely to escalate over time, is not as likely to involve severe violence, and is more likely to be mutual. -It also does not involve the control tactics which are integral to intimate terrorism.

Acquaintance rape

-date rape includes this, which is a broader term that refers to any rape where the perpetrator was a friend or acquaintance of the victim. -Most rapes are, in fact, instances of acquaintance rape (rape committed by a person known to the victim)

Gender role dysfunction

-describes very harmful and rigid ideas males develop about what it means to be a "man" versus a "woman". -Men and women are socialized to act and imitate gendered behavior in which men are dominant and strong and women are weak, dependent, and subordinate. -Women are also taught that their self-worth is derived from their relationships with others and the successful nature of those relationships. -Men are taught to separate sex from emotion and to be aggressive. -To a certain extent, rape culture can be seen as encouraging extreme versions of these roles.

Individual difference models (Psychosexual)

-disturbed development creates rapists. Trauma (physical, emotional, sexual) - vandalize love maps. -Rape is a "paraphilic attachment style". -Same variables that predict criminal, anti-social behavior in general

Rape culture

-first introduced by feminists who view rape as motivated by a man's desire to control and have power over a woman, and noy by a desire for sex. -A term that refers to the ways in which society normalizes sexual violence and blames victims of sexual violence (victim blaming, slut shaming, sexual objectification, trivializing rape, denying that rape is widespread and refusing to acknowledge the harm caused by sexual violence)

Definitions of sexual consent

-historically, most legal definitions hinged on a "no means no" interpretation, meaning that only a communicated "no" indicated a person does not want to engage in sexual activity, and that the absence of a response therefore indicated a "yes," i.e., sexual consent -Several states revisited this definition by enacting so-called "yes means yes" laws. -. From a "yes means yes" standpoint, sexual activity is only consensual if both people have willingly and consciously communicated their willingness to participate in the sexual activity, under this standard, the absence of a "yes," expressed as a lack of resistance, for example, does not constitute consent. -There still exists a debate concerning whether a "yes," needs to be verbally given, or if one's actions (a smile, a returned passionate kiss, taking the lead in the behavior, etc.) are enough

Rates of Rape

-in 45% of rapes the rapist is a friend or acquaintance of the victim, and in an additional 25%, the perpetrator is (or was) the victim's boyfriend/spouse/intimate partner. -In 1% of rapes, the perpetrator is a non-spouse relative. -Only 28% of rapes are committed by a stranger to the victim. -Most rapists know their victims, 21% are strangers, 40% are intimate partners, and 39% are friends/acquaintances.

victim-survivor debate

-in an effort to empower rape victims, the term rape "survivor" is often used in place of rape "victim" -the idea is that by using the word "survivor," women are afforded a sense of strength, dignity, and control instead of the helplessness that the word "victim" connotes. -others point out that it unfairly puts pressure on those who experience rape to feel as though they have healed and moved on, when in fact many times they most definitely do not

Rape myths (3 categories)

-involve negative and false beliefs that are widely and persistently held in which the victim of rape is blamed, and the perpetrator excused, based on traditional male-female roles and heteronormativity. -These myths fall into three categories: the female wanting it to happen; the female bringing it on herself via clothing, drinking, dancing; or the female exaggerating the event or making up the event

Hostile-environment harassment

-involves a pattern of unwelcome sexual attention that makes life difficult for the victim. -It is harder to prosecute since it involves more general behaviors versus an explicit deal or threat. -Often involve free speech issue - Yale case in 2012.

mutual violent control(a.k.a. Mutual self-destruction)

-is a pattern in which both partners are controlling and violent; -the pattern can be viewed as two intimate terrorists battling for control. -This pattern is rarer than the other categories of violence described above, and has not been the subject of as much research

quid pro quo harassment

-is arguably the most obvious form of sexual harassment, as it involves the suggestion, whether implicit or explicit, that granting sexual favors will lead to certain tangible rewards. -Most reprehensible

intimate terrorism

-is primarily prepetrated by men against women, but can also occur in same-sex relationships. -Violence is used as part of a general pattern of control over one's partner. -It usually escalated over time, is not mutual, and is more likely to involve serious injury. -It involves the type of emotional abuse that can gradually alter women's views of themselves, their relationships, and their place in the world. -Women frequently become demoralized and trapped in these types of abusive relationships.

What is rape culture, why and how it gets perpetuated

-it describes a setting where rape is pervasive and normalized by societal attitudes about gender and sexuality. -Bahaviors commonly associated with rape culture include victim blaming, slut shaming, sexual objectificatino, trivializing rape, denying that rape is widespread, and refuing to acknowledge the harm caused by sexual violence. Research supports the idea that rape culture is largely fueled by the following three components: overly strict (dysfunctional) gender roles, rape myths, sexual scripts

Third-party sexual harassment

-losing out on promotions/working in an environment that is degrading to women. -Sometimes employees are not the target of sexual harassment themselves, but suffer by losing out on opportunities (promotions, pay, etc) granted to those employees who are. -Such employees also suffer by having their work environment generally degraded.

Date rape

-not a legal term, but it is used to describe situations in which a consensual sexual interaction is already underway when the rape occurs. -Date rape does not necessitate that two people are on a formal date of any kind (rape between dating or socially acquainted couples

violent resistance

-primarily defensive or reactive on the part of the victim, usually a woman. -Many theorists propose that the reason statistics show equal numbers of women and men committing IPV is because women are more likely to be engaging in violent resistance (a.k.a. "self-defense.")

Biosocial theories

-rape as an evolutionary adaptation. -It is in the nature of males to rape, males are naturally rapists. -Male genetics and biology cause rape evolution of sex/aggression in males. -Hyperactive male sex drive causes rape. "Testosterone poisoning". -Predicts uniform rates of rape across-societies - not supported by data

Defining rape and sexual assault

-sexual assault is "any type of sexual contact or behavior that occurs without the explicit consent of the recipient." Includes forced sexual intercourse, forcible sodomy, child molestation, incest, fondling, and attempted rape. -Rape, a subset of sexual assault, is a more specific term. -Legally it is defined as: "the penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim."

Sexual scripts that support rape culture

-sexual scripts are also an important aspect of rape culture. -Sexual scripts describe the expected ways in which females, as opposed to males, are expected to act in sexaul situations. -The main sexual script that supports rape culture is one in which females are expected to be sexual gatekeepers who are not allowed to initiate a sexual encounter, but are expected to resist sexual advanced regardless of their own desires.

Impact on victims

-the experience violates a person's sense of inner control and autonomy. -The trauma produces harm that extends far beyond the mere physical injuries sustained from the incident -Like other survivors of horrific events, rape victims are at risk of developing PTSD

intimate partner stalking

-the stalker is a current or former boyfriend/girlfriend or spouse. -Oftentimes, the stalking begins to occur before the relationship has ended, and is an expression of suspicion and desire for control. -Other times it begins after a rejection has occurred, in an effort to see if the victim truly means to go through with the breakup. -Many of these types of stalkers engage in obsessive thinking and have tendencies toward exploitation and coercion.

Empathy

-this personality trait counteracted many of the other risk factors. -To the extent that males are able to figuratively put themselves in their victims' shoes and imagine the pain and trauma that sexual violence will cause their victims, they are less likely to commit sexual aggression

Delusional stalking

-this type of stalker has the delusional belief that the victim is either in love with them or would fall in love with them if they were simply to meet. -Celebrities are at particularly high risk for delusional stalking

Grudge stalking

-this type of stalker is pursuing the victim as a means of revenge for either an imagined or actual injury. -Grudge stalking is the least likely to be sexual or romantic in nature. It usually involves co-workers, employers, etc.

Social learning model

-to a large extent, the tendency for males to rape is something that they are "taught" to do, due to certain messages that permeate culture and society. Social expectations cause rape. -Rape is a form of gender role dysfunction. -Feminist model - "rape is not about sex, it's about power".

Title IX

-use of Title IX complaint in campus sexual assault cases has become a model for victims at universities across the country. -o hundred of Title IX investigations: over 350 colleges and universities are currently under investigation by the U.S. Department of Education for Title IX violations in their handling of student sexual assault as of July 2015. -Essentially, the DOE warned that if sexual assault cases were not prosecuted more vigorously, universities would lose their funding under Title IX which prohibits schools from practicing gender discrimination.

Perpetrator identities/what distinguish rapists from non-rapists

-whereas some violent rapists do have severe personality disorders or are driven by sadistic tendencies, the vast majority of rapists do not suffer from a major mental health disorder. -rapist = lower socioeconomic status, less education, emotional or physical abuse as children, porn and violent media at a young age, violent upbringing

4 stages that culminate in a rape(Malamuth Model)

Malamuth has examined how particular social cognitions (beliefs) and personality variables are associated with the following four major stages that culminate in a rape: motivation,Overcome internal inhibitors,Overcome external inhibitions,Find opportunities/Select victims

Battered spouse syndrome

a pattern of learned helplessness in which the victim no longer attempts to flee

Stalking

a stalker is a person who is emotionally obsessed with a particular victim. Stalkers repeatedly frighten their victims by following them, harassing them, waiting in places for them where they know they will be, making phone calls to them and vandalizing their property

Violent Incident

abuser commits major assault; victim fights back, tries to flee, calls police

Tension-building phase (weeks)

abuser is moody, suspicious, commits minor assaults; victim tries to appease abuser

Reconciliation phase (months)

abuser tries to make amends, declares love; victim recants charges to police, lies about the cause of injury

Intimate Partner Violence

any behavior within an intimate relationship that causes physical, psychological or sexual harm to those in the relationship, including acts of physical aggression, sexual coercion psychological abuse and controlling behaviours

What is sexual harassment?

from a legal standpoint, in the US sexual harassment is defined as follows: "unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitute sexual harassment when this conduct explicitly or implicitly affects an individual's employment, unreasonably interferes with an individual's work performance, or created an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environmeny." -According to this more socio-psychological definition, sexual harassment is: "unwanted sex-related behavior at work that is appraised by the recipient as offensive, exceeding her resources, or threatening her well-being."

Sexual Consent

healthy partner sex - gaining compliance is not gaining consent: emotional threats - withdraw love, break-up; persistent comments, requests; guilt-tripping - imply obligation; punitive withdrawal - designed to punish; deceit - lie about self, commitment; deciet - lie about self, commitment; trickery - put person in compromised, unsafe situation

Calm

incident is forgotten, no abuse taking place, "the honeymoon phase"

What are the three types of stalking and what do they involve?

intimate partner stalking, delusional stalking, grudge stalking

Sexual Assault on College Campuses

it's a national problem. 21% of students told researchers they had been sexually assaulted since the beginning of college.

Date rapists general characteristics

many partners, frequent coitus, focus on orgasm; prefer hooking up, not relationship; pattern of general delinquent behavior; positive response to sex aggressive porn; misogyny - negative attitudes about females; history of own victimization (violence, abuse)

Symptoms of rape trauma syndrome?

numbness, disconnection, pre-occupation with/flashbacks to the event, self-blame, anxiety, depression, anger, difficulty concentrating, loss of interest in sex, difficulty with arousal

What are the three kinds of workplace sexual harassment?

quid pro quo harassment, hostile- environment, third part sexual harassment

Statutory rape

refers to such penetration, without physical force, of a victim who is unable to give consent either because of their young age or mental incapacity (rape of a minor or physically or mentally incapcacitated person who is considered incapable of consenting to sex

What is the most common types of intimate partner violence?

violent resistance, common couple violence, intimate terrorism, mutual violent control

Malamuth

violent upbringing, less educated, poor relationships with their parents, more self-centered, less capacity for empathy, some extremely violent rapists have personality disorders)