Chapter 19

Hitler: Who/What

Adolf Hitler was the leader of the German Nazi party and the dictator of Germany during World War II, making him perhaps the most infamous person to ever have lived. Hitler started out as a political opponent to the Weimar Republic and a huge enemy of the Versailles Treaty. Hitler was a huge anti-Semitic. He gained power by slowly dominating different spheres of political influence.

Why did France find it difficult to achieve security after the Versailles Treaty?

After the Versailles Treaty, France was essentially unable to find any protection from Germany, as no government had agreed to protect it in the event of attack. France was also frustrated by the lack of reparation payment from Germany, and was determined to gain the money and rebuild after the war.

Lenin: When/Where

Died 1924

Dawes Plan: When/Where

Germany, 1920s

Weimar Republic: When/Where

Germany, pre-Hitler

Hitler: Why

Hitler's rise to power is a chronicle of dictatorship reminiscent of the rises of Mussolini and Stalin. By whatever political means he used, Hitler managed to take over Germany and thus turned it against the world, engaging in aggressive expansive efforts that none of the Western powers attempted to stop until the invasion of Poland started World War II.

Fascism: When/Where

Rose in Italy in the 1910s-30s

Trotsky: When/Where

Russia, 1930s

War Communism: When/Where

Russian Civil War

How did Ireland win its independence?

Ireland started by forming a new leading group, the Sinn Fein, which won seats for Ireland in Parliament and then refused to attend, creating a new Irish Parliament. The country declared itself independent, sparking a war between Britain and Ireland that ended with Ireland winning governing independence under the British Commonwealth. From there on out, slow revisionism led to an ultimate independence in 1949.

Lenin: Why

Lenin used to be a major leader in Russia, but his power waned as he aged and his distance from his original ideology increased. In short, he may have ultimately done what he had to do for the welfare of his country, but the radical ideology he had created turned against him.

Lenin: Who/What

Lenin was the leader of the Bolsheviks in Russia and a radical revolutionary who took power after the Russian Revolution. His ideology stemmed from Marxism in the belief of the evils of capitalism and the necessity of revolt to bring about a world free of class conflict. However, in the later years, under difficult economic conditions Lenin was forced to revive a large part of capitalism in the nation in order to confront the Great Depression.

How did the Bolshevik revolution result in the split of the socialist parties in Western Europe?

The Bolshevik revolution only represented a small part in the division of socialist parties - primarily, the division resulted from the very different forms of socialism that had developed independently in each nation. The radical policy of the Bolsheviks simply widened the gap between them and the other socialists of Europe.

How did the Comintern affect Western socialist parties?

The Comintern, or Third International, turned most of the socialist parties against each other. In short, the radically different forms of socialism (revisionist, communism, etc.) could simply not agree on the definitions of their own ideologies, and so the vast gap between the nations of Europe simply grew.

Dawes Plan: Who/What

The Dawes Plan was an agreement of revision of Versailles under the reign of Gustav Stresemann. Ultimately it declared that Germany's reparation payments could now fluctuate with the prosperity of the economy, lowering annual payments and giving the Germans some hope of economic recovery. This agreement came in the spirit of Stresemann's more revisionist policies towards the unjust and vast reparation payments that Germany had been forced to pay as a result of the destruction of World War I.

Dawes Plan: Why

The Dawes Plan was just one step that could perhaps have healed German economy, but the vast outflow of payment from the republic destroyed the republic entirely and brought Germany to an era of massive inflation.

Fascism: Why

The Fascists were an extremely right-wing faction and believed strongly in national honor, rejecting traditional politics and parties. Because of this, Italian national pride came above all else during the years of World War II, which came to determine Mussolini's relationship with Hitler and other dictatorial regimes.

Invasion of the Ruhr: Why

The Invasion of the Ruhr contributed greatly to Germany's failing economy. Debts and mortgages could not be paid off, and rising prices made complications only more severe. The Great Depression in Germany was fueled by the Ruhr invasion, and the social tension that followed was a catalyst of the Nazis' relentless desire for order and stability.

Invasion of the Ruhr: Who/What

The Invasion of the Ruhr was a French action in 1923 to secure and ensure the reparation payments Germany needed to make to the victorious nations of World War I as per the Versailles agreement, which Germany had no say in. Germans responded to this action with economic resistance that only caused huge inflation that made money of such little value it could be used as insulation or fuel for a fire.

Was the invasion of the Ruhr wise?

The Invasion of the Ruhr was certainly a provocative measure that turned the German people against France. France invaded the Ruhr in order to gain control of the mining district and ensure reparation payments from the nation. All in all, it caused serious anger between Germany and France.

Kellogg-Briand Pact: Why

The Kellogg-Briand Pact was ultimately an admittance of unwillingness. France admitted to being unable to battle Germany alone through the Locarno Agreements, and Britain simply revealed it was unwilling to risk soldiers in the Eastern agreement. Still, though, war may not have occurred had the Great Depression not struck.

Labour Party: Who/What

The Labour Party was established in part by British Fabian socialists and in part by the Trades Union Congress in the early 1900s, after the House of Lords removed the protection of union funds. The Labour Party firstly fought for wages to meet the rising cost of living in Britain, and was not necessarily socialists.

Labour Party: Why

The Labour Party would someday win an election in the form of Clement Attlee, who was a major player in the Potsdam Negotiations at the end of World War II.

Third International: Who/What

The Third International of the European socialist movement, more commonly known as the Comintern, was a socialist meeting organized by the Soviet communists. Lenin founded this movement hoping to make the Bolshevik model of communism the universal socialist model for all of Europe, including criterion such as Moscow's leadership, rejection of revisionism, and adoption of the Communist Party name.

Third International: Why

The Third International sought the death of democratic socialism. Conflicted on the proposed agreement, European socialists split and argued intensely. Different leading ideological groups painted others in a dark light by manipulating and exaggerating fears. The Nazi Party of Germany was a deep right-wing faction that ousted Communism and made it appear to be the ultimate evil, the root of a majority of German problems caused in the wake of World War I.

Why did the Versailles Treaty loom so large in domestic German politics?

The Versailles Treaty targeted Germany and highlighted them as the country solely responsible for World War I, and therefore forced them to make huge reparation payments for the events of the war. These payments destroyed the German economy through massive inflation.

Weimar Republic: Why

The Weimar Republic was a sort of spiritual "Old Regime" to the Nazis. They represented to the people all of the hardships the Versailles treaty had imposed on their living, including the Great Depression. The economic instability of this government, perhaps, was one of the main reasons Hitler could successfully take power.

Between 1919 and 1929, what were the republic's greatest strengths and weaknesses?

The Weimar Republic was intolerant of communist and socialist uprisings in the nation, and was working slowly towards economic prosperity. They tried to revise the Versailles treaty through democracy and not open warfare. They were weak in that they were unable to stop the Nazis from taking power in the country, and were unwilling to take action to stop them.

Storm Troopers: Why

The storm troopers ultimately were the Nazi party's main power. Instead of loyalty through 'devotion to the nation' they simply gained more power by deploying forces to keep the peace and prevent any challenge to their regime.

What forces worked against democracy in the region?

There were many minority groups in the nation who were against the government and wanted to unite with other nations. The government may have worked out these problems, but Hitler appealed to the Germans within the country, and through that the nation slowly collapsed to his widening power.

Lateran Accord: Why

This agreement finally repaired the damage in the relationship between the Italian church and state, giving the church some power in law such as the control of marriages. Because of this, Mussolini's regime came to be much more respected over a wide view.

Trotsky: Why

Trotsky failed to gain much power, as his influence appealed to Marxist ideology and not the success of Russian enterprises as more people supported. Joseph Stalin focused instead on "right-wing" Russian politics, hoping to continue NEP. Ironically, after he gained power, Stalin industrialized everything and created a fully dictatorial regime.

Trotsky: Who/What

Trotsky was a Russian politician and was a major influence in the wake of Lenin's death. Formerly a harsh Red Army general, Trotsky now openly moved for rapid industrialization, collectivization of farming, and the spread of revolution to other states.

Stresemann: When/Where

1878-1929, Germany

Mussolini: When/Where

1883-1945, Italy

Hitler: When/Where

1889-1945, Germany

Labour Party: When/Where

1901, Britain

Third International: When/Where

1919-1920

Nazi Party: When/Where

1920, Germany

Storm Troopers: When/Where

1920s, Germany

Sinn Fein: When/Where

1920s, Ireland

Invasion of the Ruhr: When/Where

1923, Ruhr region of Germany

Mein Kampf: When/Where

1924, Hitler in prison

Kellogg-Briand Pact: When/Where

1928, world

Lateran Accord: Who/What

An agreement between Mussolini and the Vatican which reconciled the Italian state and the Roman Catholic Church. Prior to this, Italian nationalists had withheld church land, causing tension and hostility. Now the Catholics held their own small country in Vatican City, and the government agreed to pay for the confiscated lands.

What were the differences between the fascist dictatorship of Mussolini and the communist dictatorship of Stalin?

Both the fascists and the communists under the mentioned leaders came to power through political manipulation. Both Stalin and Mussolini were put in office through fully legal means, but there were differences. Stalin's coming to power seemed to be out of actual support, while Mussolini seemed to come in charge through intimidation. The fascists were strongly right-wing, while the communists were mainly left-wing.

Why were Britain and France "joyless victors" after World War I?

Britain and France may have been victorious in the war, but the depression came down hard on them like everyone else. France was wracked with tensions with Germany, and neither were willing to go to war again after the destruction of the First World War.

Why was Czechoslovakia the only visible democracy in Eastern Europe?

Czechoslovakia worked with the Allies during World War I, and through this came cooperation between Czechs and Slovaks. The country established different commonwealths and embraced a policy of equality and fairness that could have turned it into a modern state.

How and why did fascist obtain power in Italy?

Fascism came in power due to the power of Mussolini and the inadequate methods of the reigning government to quell the uprising. In short, the government was too afraid of the possibility of war on the inside to take the will to bring down the radicals.

Fascism: Who/What

Fascism was Mussolini's political ideology. It was strongly focused on the ideals of nationalism and rejected democracy, parliament, and socialism. They were also often anti-Semitic, and they rejected liberal ideologies. They considered themselves the revival of the Roman glory age.

What is Fascism?

Fascism was the ideology formed by Mussolini, which dominated Italy as a deep right-wing faction. Fascists were primarily anti-Semitic, anti-democratic, anti-Marxist, and anti-parliamentary. There is no real clear definition of fascism, but the true reality of it was their military nature and dictatorial regime.

To whom did they appeal?

Fascists primarily supported the interests of the middle class, rejecting liberalism and instead moving toward a fully dictatorial regime of upper-class leaders of a single race with a common strength in nationalism.

Lateran Accord: When/Where

February 1929, Italy

What weakness did each have?

France was unable to defend itself in the event of German attack, and was unsupported by any other governments. Britain was not willing to involve itself in Eastern affairs and essentially gave in to all of Hitler's demands. Both used the policy of appeasement toward Germany, which led to the destruction of the Eastern Front and ultimately a serious threat to both nations.

What was the stature of women under communist and fascist regimes?

Generally, communists and fascists saw women in their 'traditional' roles as housewives and mothers, but sometimes they also saw labor roles for women in supporting the prosperity of the main government. Many women were put to work in factories during World War II in Germany,

Stresemann: Who/What

Gustav Stresemann was the leader of the German republic before Hitler came to power. Stresemann tried to repair the damage to the republic by engaged in renegotiation of the Versailles reparation payment agreements, all the while keeping down mild communist and socialist disturbances in the nation. Under Stresemann, the Dawes Plan was formed. Stresemann focused his policies on peaceful, democratic revision and sought some similar goals with Hitler when it came to eastern expansion, but through peaceful politics.

Sinn Fein: Who/What

In the 1920s, Ireland made a major revolt against British rule, which the British brutally put down. As a result of this, leadership of the Irish shifted to Sinn Fein, who refused to attend Parliament and instead established an Irish Parliament, declaring the nation independent. Through this, a huge revolutionary war occurred between the IRA and the British.

Was the Locarno pact a success?

Locarno was a wise measure, as helping to heal the German economy may have prevented the worst of the Depression had the United States not been so aggressive for full reparation payment, causing inflation. Allowing the German reparation payments to fluctuate could have made sure the country remained stable after the war.

New Economic Policy: When/Where

March 1921

Mein Kampf: Why

Mein Kampf was Hitler's outline of all of his goals. Principally, it voiced against Jews and communism (which he associated with one another), and argued for the expansion of Germany into eastward territories (the basis for Lebensraum). Though not immediately successful, My Struggle outlined all of the foreign policies that Nazi Germany would seek to uphold during the World War II years.

Mussolini: Why

Mussolini came to be the most powerful man in Italy. He was given the title of prime minister by King Victor Emmanuel III, who feared using the army against the marchers. Mussolini later allied with Hitler in pursuit of interests in the Balkans and Africa, becoming a major figure in World War II.

Mussolini: Who/What

Mussolini was the Fascist leader of Italy in the years prior to and during World War II. He gained his power through his policy of political survival, which allowed him to change his ideals to suit new situations. After being a schoolteacher and laborer, Mussolini took up politics and eventually became a moving figure in Italy, reinforced with his huge army of followers.

March on Rome: Who/What

Mussolini's march on Rome was the event that gave him power in the country. Supported by hundreds of followers, Mussolini intimidated King Victor Emmanuel III, who did not authorize the army to move against the Fascists. Instead he invited Mussolini to become prime minister.

Was the failure of the Weimar Republic in Germany inevitable?

Not necessarily - the Weimar Republic was quite democratic, and the revisionism of the republic could have finally healed the country's economy from the destruction of the reparation payments. The reason the Weimar Republic fell was that Hitler's growing power appealed to a growing majority and other governments did not step in to stop it.

March on Rome: When/Where

October 1922, Rome

Locarno Agreement: When/Where

October 1925

Mein Kampf: Who/What

On November 9, 1923, Hitler's followers attempted a coup in Munich, but local authorities crushed them and Hitler was sent to prison. Being imprisoned gave Hitler time to think about his ideology and his ultimate goals for Germany and Austria. He wrote a series of points in the book "My Struggle" that outlined his ultimate anti-Semitic anti-Versailles vision, and through his writing finally realized what he intended to do.

Sinn Fein: Why

Sinn Fein was the face of coming Irish independence. Though Ireland did not immediately become totally independent, they did become an independent state in the British Commonwealth, giving them an independent government. In 1949, Ireland became independent for good.

Storm Troopers: Who/What

Storm troopers or SA were the Nazi parliamentary forces who were famous for being the chief Nazi instrument for terror and intimidation. The SA represented the Nazis' resort to violence as the ultimate source of loyalty from the people.

Stresemann: Why

Stresemann represents a possibility that Germany could rebuild after the destruction of the first war, in a similar way to how France was able to rise to power again through diplomacy after the Napoleonic Wars. For a time he offered hope of peaceful means to achieve Germany's goals, but his death and the rise of the Nazis put an end to this possibility. Instead, the world would go to war.

Locarno Agreement: Why

The Locarno Agreements were a hope for Europe that the terror of World War I would not be brought back to haunt the world. However, the only ultimate result was that the world leaders inadequately dealt with Germany's demands on the eastern front, too unwilling to get involved in foreign affairs to directly intervene to halt German aggression.

Locarno Agreement: Who/What

The Locarno Agreements were a series of arrangements made between Germany, France, and Britain that sought to reconcile the tensions that had resulted from the Versailles agreement. France and Germany accepted the established western frontier and Britain and Italy agreed to intervene in case of aggression. France also agreed to withdraw from the Rhineland.

March on Rome: Why

The March on Rome was successful due to Mussolini's intimidating character and the inability of his rivals to stand firmly against him. As a result, the Fascists gained complete power in Italy, and set in motion the events leading to World War II.

New Economic Policy: Why

The NEP can be seen as a necessary measure that the pressures of the Depression forced upon a leader who had to defy his own ideology in order to fix his country. In the end, it only served to destroy his dwindling power. New communist leader Joseph Stalin instituted total control of the government and used that power to commit unspeakable crimes.

New Economic Policy: Who/What

The NEP was Lenin's measure to confront the Great Depression. In order to solve the huge economic problems that were destabilizing his new government, Lenin was forced to revive capitalism on smaller scales. Specifically, he allowed for private commerce and the profit of peasants from farming while retaining control of higher industries like banking and industry.

Nazi Party: Who/What

The National Socialist German Workers Party, better known as the Nazis, were a powerful political party that was led by Hitler. The Nazis in particular pointed out the wrongs in the Versailles treaty and were almost all anti-Semitic, and also wished to see Germany and Austria united into a single state.

Nazi Party: Why

The Nazis redefined the term 'socialist' to simply suit their strongly nationalistic ideology. Hitler's definition of socialism essentially meant the subordination of all enterprise to the welfare of the state. Their power in Germany grew steadily thanks to the inadequacy of the Weimar Republic and, later, the appeasement policy of the Western nations.

What was the position of the Nazi Party in the late 1920s?

The Nazis were primarily against the Versailles Treaty, blaming Jews, Bolsheviks, and the Western Powers for every single one of the problems the country dealt with at the time. The Nazis were deep-rooted nationalists and wanted Germany to be independent of all outside influence and free to develop arms and industry on its own.

Why did Lenin institute the New Economic Policy? Could the Russian Revolution have succeeded without Lenin?

The Russian Revolution may not have started without at least people who were as radically Marxist as Lenin. The New Economic Policy, however, seemed a necessary precaution for Lenin to keep his Bolshevik republic alive. With civil war already shaking the nation and his government having barely taken over, he was not willing to risk his new empire on as simple a matter as ideological policy on economics, so Lenin was forced to reinstitute private businesses in order to keep the Soviet Union's economy alive.

Weimar Republic: Who/What

The Weimar Republic was the established government of Germany in the years between World War I and World War II, preceding Hitler's Nazi-dominated regime. The government was founded on the ideals of German socialists and democrats. Because the republic agreed to the terms of the Versailles Treaty, they were forever seen as the disgrace of Germany.

How did the Bolshevik revolution pose a challenge to the rest of Europe?

The Western powers especially were greatly afraid of the spread of communism in Europe, as it posed a grave threat to the established institutions of capitalism and democracy, which Marxism was greatly opposed to. Opposition to the spread of communism would play a major role in the rest of the 20th century.

Kellogg-Briand Pact: Who/What

This pact came out of the peaceful spirit of the Locarno Agreements which reconciled France and Germany on good terms. The agreement was made by Europe, America, and Japan that "war (was) an instrument of national policy." However, all the pact really did was reveal the unwillingness of nations to work together and support one another under pressure.

War Communism: Why

War Communism helped the Bolsheviks defeat their opponents, but it only generated widespread opposition among peasants in the countryside who engaged in strikes and continued to frustrate the higher politics. This was a contributing factor to the NEP.

War Communism: Who/What

War Communism was the original policy of the Bolsheviks which gave them control of all heavy industry and production. The Bolsheviks totally controlled the farmland and stole away from peasants to feed urban workers and soldiers. They suppressed resistance with the excuse of the necessity of production for the civil war.

How did Stalin overcome Trotsky and establish himself as head of the Soviet state?

While Trotsky advocated voluntary peasant work and rapid industrialization, as was the more communist method, he fell subordinate to Stalin's slower industrialization and NEP continuation which was more desirable to the people. Ironically, as soon as he was in power, Stalin went against all of his original goals and turned the Soviet Union into a fully-industrial, autocratic state.

How did World War I change British politics?

With the pressure of the Depression at hand, the British government was reformed into a National Government that consisted of the Labour, Liberal, and Conservative parties. This government hoped to reconcile the differences between parties and perhaps heal the damage to the British economy.