Chapter 2: Two Kinds of Reasoning

Truth Functional Logic

(sentential logic, propositional logic) is the logic of arguments consisting of propositions that can be or have been connected by logical connectives such as "not," "and," "or," and "if/then." Such arguments are deductive.

What are the two fundamental types of reasoning?

-Deductive Demonstration -Inductive Support

"1) She was out late last night which led to 2) her being overly tired this morning. 3) So, she won't show up for class." How would you map this?

1-2-3

"The financial cost of the death penalty is less than that of life in prison. Also, it does not deter crime."What is needed to make this into an argument? Multiple choice question.

A A) A conclusion B) A premise

Which type of persuasion involves personal attributes, reputation, or accomplishments? Multiple choice question.

A A) Ethos B) Pathos C) Logos

"I am against stricter gun control. Criminals don't pay attention to the law, and citizens need to defend themselves. It's true that in most massacres, the weapons used were legal. However, I'm still opposed to stricter control." What is the counterargument?

A A) In most massacres, the weapons were legal B) I'm opposed to stricter gun control C) Criminal don't pay attention to the law

"Summer vacation should be longer. It's true that students wouldn't learn as much in school. But students need time to refresh their minds. Also, many students need to find employment over the summer." What is the counterargument? Multiple choice question.

A A) Students wouldn't learn as much in school B) Students need summer jobs

"The financial cost of the death penalty is less than that of life in prison. Also, it does not deter crime."What is needed to make this into an argument?

A conclusuion

Which list of words indicates a conclusion will follow?

Accordingly, consequently, therefore

"Harold is a twin. Therefore, Harold has a sibling." What is the unstated premise?

All twins have siblings.

How is an argument sound?

An argument is sound if it is valid and its premise (or premises) is true.

How is an argument valid?

An argument is valid if it isn't possible for its premise or premises to be true and its conclusion to be false.

What is an inductive argument used for?

An inductive argument is used to support rather than to demonstrate a conclusion

Who devised the theory of persuasion and the three modes of rhetoric?

Aristotle

"John could not have stolen the car because he wasn't in town when it was stolen." Is "because" used in this case an explanation or evidence in a conclusion? Multiple choice question.

B A) Explanation B) Evidence

What type of reasoning involves weighing considerations for or against making a certain decision?

B A) Inference to the Best Explanation B) Balance of Considerations C) Rational Adjudication D) Common Sense

"Marijuana has been used for medical purposes for years. Compared to other substances, marijuana's effects are mild. I think marijuana should be legalized." What is a premise?

B A) Marijuana should be legalized. B) Marijuana is used for medical purposes.

Which word or words indicate a conclusion is about to follow?

B A) The reason is B) Consequently C) However

Which of these words indicates a premise?

B A) Therefore B) Since C) Hence D) Consequently

Identify a true statement about premises.

B A) They cannot turn into a conclusion in another argument. B) They are absent in a piece of pure rhetoric. C) They cannot be unstated in inductive or deductive arguments. D) They are absent in an argument.

A deductive argument

B A) tries to support the conclusion. B) proves or demonstrates the conclusion.

In the context of arguments, which of the following has a premise?

C A) "God exists." B) "God exists, and if you don't believe it, you will go to hell." C) "God exists because something had to cause the universe." D) "I think God exists, because I was raised a Baptist."

"The legal age for drinking alcohol should be 18. An 18 year old is a legal adult. Further, 18 year olds can get jobs and have responsibility." What is the conclusion of the argument?

C A) An 18 year old is a legal adult. B) With freedoms come responsibilities. C) The drinking age should be 18.

When evaluating an argument, what is generally the first step?

C A) Find the biases B) Find the premises C) Find the conclusion

Identify the kind of inductive argument that inductively supports a claim that asserts or implies cause-and-effect, or, alternatively, use such a cause-and-effect claim as a premise in an argument to establish that something happened or is the case.

Causal arguments

When what follows "because" states the cause of something, we have a(n) _____.

Cause-and-Effect Explaination

Which of the following is an argument in which one inductively concludes that particular members of a population have an attribute because some high proportions of all the population's members have that attribute?

De-generalizing

Other names for Statistical Syllogism?

De-generalizing, Reverse Generalizing, Instantiating

In a deductive argument, the premises ____ the conclusion.

Demonstrate

"I believe Aristotle's argument because he is a renowned philosopher." This is an example of

Ethos

"I was late to class because my car broke down." In this case, is "because" used to indicate an explanation or a premise?

Explanation

True or false: In logic, an argument is a feud or conflict.

False: This is false. The word "argument" does not always refer to two people having a feud or fuss about something. That use of the word has nothing much to do with critical thinking, though many a heated exchange could use some critical thinking.

"I have an allergic reaction to nuts so I couldn't eat the cake. Further, I don't like chocolate. Hence, I skipped dessert." What word indicated the conclusion? Multiple choice question.

Hence

Which of these is an argument? -I am a great thinker -I believe that I exist -I think. Therefore I am

I think. Therefore I am.

An argument "beyond a reasonable doubt" in the law is a type of ____ argument.

Inductive

An inference to the best explanation is a type of _____ argument.

Inductive

In which type of argument do the premises support the conclusion?

Inductive

What is a deductive argument used for?

It is used to demonstrate or prove a conclusion, which it does if it is sound.

How does an argument support a conclusion?

It supports its conclusion if it increases the likelihood that the conclusion is true.

"The death penalty does not deter crime and is financially expensive. Therefore it is wrong." This is an example of _____.

Logos

Which type of persuasion relies on information or arguments?

Logos

Which type of rhetoric is rarely used by advertisers and is often the least effective way of winning someone to one's point of view?

Logos

Is this argument sound?"All humans are dogs.All dogs are mammals.All humans are mammals."

NO

"As a senator, I'm opposed to rezoning this neighborhood. I grew up here. I'm part of the community. This issue is important to me, my parents, and my grandparents!" Does the speaker present an argument? Multiple choice question.

No

Can a picture or photograph be an argument?

No

"He should be our representative. He was brought up in our neighborhood, and he understands and loves each and every one of us." This is an example of _____.

Pathos

Which group of words all usually indicate a premise?

Since, given that, for this reason

When true premises result in a true conclusion, the argument is _____.

Sound

The premises of an inductive argument are intended to _____ the conclusion.

Support

What is the first step in evaluating an argument?

Test if the premises support the conclusion.

The conclusion of an argument is also called the _____.

Thesis

why arguments are sometimes difficult to understand?

They can be complicated in structure.

T or F? Arguments always have two parts: a premise (or premises) and a conclusion

True

T or F? Inductive and deductive arguments can have unstated premises.

True

T or F? Inductive arguments are not used to establish subjective judgments.

True

T or F? The statement can be a premise in one argument and a conclusion in a second argument

True

T or F? Whether an argument is deductive or inductive may depend on what the unstated premise is said to be

True

True or false: Common sense and background knowledge are important components of critical thinking.

True

True or false: When a premise is unstated, it is sometimes impossible to decipher if it is a deductive or inductive argument.

True

True or false: When there is an unstated premise, you should use the context and content to clarify if the argument is deductive or inductive.

True

True or false: People frequently use arguments when they try to persuade others.

True: Despite the general inefficacy of logos as a tool of persuasion, people do frequently use arguments when they try to persuade others.

"My stomach is growling. I must be hungry." This argument is more likely to be an inductive argument.

True: You can always turn an inductive argument with an unstated premise into a deductively valid argument by supplying the right universal premise—a statement that something holds without exception or is true everywhere or in all cases.

An argument is _____ if it is not possible for the premise to be true and the conclusion false.

Valid

"This park is the most lovely in the state. It has more visits per year than most other parks. It has been part of the community for years. I don't think it should be rezoned into commercial land." Does the speaker present an argument?

Yes

Can balance of considerations arguments involve both deductive and inductive reasoning?

Yes

Can balance of considerations arguments involve both deductive and inductive reasoning? Yes or No?

Yes

"Usually, when a tire slowly leaks air, there is a small hole in the tire. You drove through a construction site with many small nails scattered around." What is the likely conclusion?

You have a nail in your tire.

Generalizing from a Sample

an inductive argument in which you conclude that all or most or some percentage of all the members of a population have an attribute because all or most or some percentage of the members of a sample of the population have that attribute.

Causal Argument

an inductive argument in which you support a claim that asserts or implies cause-and-effect.

Inference to the Best Explanation

an inductive argument that concludes that something is the case because it is the best explanation of something else that is the case

The truth part of evaluating an argument involves _____.

analyzing whether the premises are true

A(n) _____ is an inductive argument that something has an attribute because a similar thing has that attribute.

argument from analogy

Every argument must have at least one premise and a

conclusion

If an argument is written...

diagramming it may help you understand it

An argument is sound _____ the argument is valid and the premises are true.

if and only if

Statistical Syllogism

is an inductive argument in which you could conclude that particular members of a population have an attribute because a large proportion of that population's members have that attribute.

Argument form Analogy

is an inductive argument that something has an attribute because a similar thing has that attribute

The more support the premise of an inductive argument provides for the conclusion, the ____________________(stronger/weaker) the argument.

stronger or better

Categorical Logic

the logic of categorical arguments, arguments that relate categories. Such arguments are deductive.