Chapter 21 Reaction, Revolution, and Romanticism, 1815-1850

21. Thomas Malthus

1766-1834, he wrote "Essay on Principles of Population" stated that food supply increases much more slowly than population. Misery + poverty = law of nature, government shouldn't interfere because it will figure itself out.

40. Romanticism

A new intellectual movement known as Romanticism came about to challenge the Enlightenment's preoccupation with reason. Romanticism stressed the importance of intuition and person feeling, emotion, and imagination as the sources of knowing. Romantic writers emphasized emotion, sentiment, and inner feelings in their work.

26. Charles Fourier's phalansteries

A phalanstery is a self-sustaining cooperative community, as advocated by Charles Fourier in the early nineteenth century. Consisted ideally of 1,620 people. Communally housed, work assignments. Didn't get tested because no financial backing.

50. Chateaubriand's Genius of Christianity

A supported of the romantic revival of Catholicism. This became the "Bible of Romanticism" Said you cant walk into a Gothic Church and feel nothing divine.

39. London Mechanics' Institute

After reformers tried to get people from the "dangerous classes" out of the streets and into work and workhouses failed, a group of secular reformers believed education was the answer, and creates things like the London Mechanic's Institute to enlighten people.

24. On the Subjection of Women

An essay by Mill after his attempt to include women suffrage in the voting reform failed. Differences between men and women were only social practices, not natural. Women + education = equal to men

37. Jacksonian Democracy

Andrew Jackson was elected President of the US in 1828, and this created the era of mass democracy. Property qualifications for voting were dropped, almost all white males could vote. Improvement of human beings was also established. Juvenile detention centers and new prisons and penal systems were established.

23. John Stuart Mill

Arguably the most famous English philosopher and politician of the 1800s. Champion of liberty over unlimited state control. Also famous for adding falsification as a key component of the scientific method. English Philosopher, Benthamite, wrote "On Liberty", Essay that talked about problem of how to prortect the rights of individuals and minorities in the emerging age of mass electoral paricipation. Advocated right of workers to organize, equality for women, and universal suffrage. Absolute freedom of opinion on all subjects. People can do whatever they want, as long as it doesn't harm society or their peers. Tyranny of majority and censorship = very bad.

28. Louis Blanc and Flora Tristan

Blanc wrote "The Organization of Work" and believed that social problems could be solved with government assistance. State financed workshops, communal worker ownership. He was a man man who urged people to agitate for universal voting rights and to take control of the state peacefully. Tristan tried to foster a "utopian synthesis of socialism and feminism." Wanted to reconstruct both family and work. Absolute equality was her idea. Ignored by contemporaries. He was a Utopian socialist who traveled through France preaching the need for liberation of women. She envisioned absolute equality as the only hope to free the working class and transform civilization.

9. Latin America revolts

By 1810, the disintegration of royal power in Argentina had led to the nation's independence. In Venezuela, a bitter struggle for independence was led by Simón Bolívar also known as the "Liberator." His forces freed Columbia in 1819 and Venezuela in 1821. A second liberator was José de San Martín, who freed Chile in 1817 and then in 1821 moved on to Lima, Peru, the center of Spanish authority. He was soon joined bt Bolivar, who assumed the task of crushing the last significant Spanish Army in 1824. Mexico and the Central Provinces also achieved their freedom, and by 1823, after Portugal had recognized the independence of Brazil, almost all of Latin America had been freed of colonial domination.

48. Caspar David Friedrich, J.M.W. Turner and Eugene Delacroix

Caspar David Friedrich was a romantic artist who was very devoted to God and nature. He painted mystical scenes of mountains and trees. He said that nature had divine life within. J.M.W. Turner was an English artist who dwelled on nature and made landscape his major subject. Eugene Delacroix was the famous French Romantic artist who painted the Death of Sardanapalus.

38. serjents, "bobbies," and Schutzmannschaft

Civilian police forces! Well trained forces who's purpose was to make Europe a disciplined and well ordered society. Serjents in France, dressed in all blue uniforms and served to protect France's citizens at all times. In Britain, the failures of the constables (unpaid selected peace keepers) led to the "bobbies" being put on the streets. Their primary goal was to prevent crime. They were called bobbies because Sir Robert Peel created the legislation to create them. The Schutzmannschaft was the police force in Germany, and was initially modeled after Britain's bobbies. This soon turned into a more military force, that was also used for political purposes. Their heavy weaponry (swords, pistols, brass knuckles, etc) also made them more military-like.

20. classical economics

Classical economics (also known as liberal economics) asserts that markets function best with minimal government interference. The theoretical idea and approach that markets can relate themselves and "solve" economic problems. It was developed in the late 18th and early 19th century by Adam Smith, Jean-Baptiste Say, David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, and John Stuart Mill.

22. David Ricardo's "iron law of wages"

David Ricardo (1772-1823) was one of the foremost economic theorists of the early nineteenth century. His ideas about free enterprise and wage control were used by the industrial capitalists of Britain who wanted to produce as much profit as possible at the least possible cost. Together with Adam Smith, whose book The Wealth of Nations (1776) laid the foundations of the capitalist doctrine of laissez-faire, and Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), who employed statistics in developing a theory of world population explosion, Ricardo was one of the principal economic theorists used by industrialists in reaction to calls for reform of working conditions in Britain. Ricardo's theory, which eventually became known as the 'Iron Law of Wages, maintained that the wages of labourers should be kept at the lowest possible level because their high rate of reproduction ensured a surplus supply of labour. He also advocated a restriction of the Poor Laws. These had originally been passed by the British Parliament in the early nineteenth century to bring relief to the poorer classes in British society. The industrialists of Britain were therefore able to use the Ricardian theory of wage control to refute the calls of the reformers. Wages wont continue to rise but will fluctuate at a point where people can survive.

45. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein

Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is a novel written by the English author Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley that tells the story of a young science student Victor Frankenstein, who creates a grotesque but sentient creature in an unorthodox scientific experiment. Shelley started writing the story when she was 18, and the first edition of the novel was published anonymously in London in 1818, when she was 20. Shelley's name first appeared on the second edition, published in France in 1823. Gothic story about a mad scientist who brings a man made monster to life and then the monster goes berserk.

6. Joseph de Maistre and conservatism

He was a Frenchman and was the most influential spokesman for a counterrevolutionary and authoritarian conservatism. He believed that only absolute monarchy and hereditary (divinely sanctioned) monarchy could "guarantee order in society" and avoid chaos and revolution.

2. Klemens von Metternich

He was the Prince of Austria and the leader of the Congress at Vienna. He was also the foreign minister for Austria. He was an experienced diplomat who was also conceited and self-assured. He had very conservative views, and a poor outlook on humanity. Strongly believed in the principle of legitimacy.

44. Sir Walter Scott

His novels became European best sellers in the first half of the 19th century. Many Romanticists (including Scott) were historically minded. Many of his novels are about conflicts between opposing cultures: "Ivanhoe" (1819) is about war between Normans and Saxons and "The Talisman" (1825) is about conflict between Christians and Muslims.

5. Edmund Burke and conservatism

In 1790 Edmund Burke wrote his Reflection on the Revolution in France in reaction to the French Revolution, especially its radical republican and democratic ideas. He argued that the state did have a contract with the people, but that it was with all people and all generations, and that one generation should not be able to upset the buildings or traditions of the past. Also, no one generation hs the right to destroy this partnership: Burke advised against the violent overthrow of the government by revolution, but he did not reject the possibility of change. Sudden change was unacceptable but that did not eliminate gradual or evolutionary improvements. Conservatism is an ideology based on tradition and social stability that favored the maintenance of established institutions, organized religion, and obedience to authority and resisted change, especially abrupt change.

14. Louis XVIII and Charles X

In 1814, the Bourbon family was restored to the throne of France in the person of Louis XVIII. Louis understood the need to accept some of the changes bought to France by the revolutionary and Napoleonic eras. He accepted Napoleon's Civil Code with its recognition of the principle of equality before the law. A bicameral legislature was established, consisting of the Chamber of Peers, chosen by the King, and the Chamber of Deputies, chosen by ab electorate restricted to slightly fewer than 100,000 wealthy people. Louis was opposed by liberals eager to extend the revolutionary reforms and by a group of ultraloyalists who criticized the king's willingness to compromise and retain so many features of the Napoleonic era. When Louis died he was succeeded by his brother, count of Artois, who became Charles X. He set out to restore the absolute monarchy with the help of the ultraroyalists. Tried to repay nobles for lands lost during the revolution, but the liberals in the legislative assembly opposed him. Eventually, he issued the July Ordinances. 1824-1830, Bourbon king of France after LXVIII. Previously the Count of Artois - one the the first emigres in revolution and very active in organizing the emigres opposition to the revolution. He was the favorite Bourbon among the most obstinate ex-seigneurs, nobles and high churchmen. Very reactionary in his reign.

32. revolutions of 1848

In France, Louis-Phillippe's government was protested and forced out, he fled to Britain. New composition of the National Assembly closed down the government workshops created by Louis Blanc- these emptied the treasury. Workers revolted in the streets, thousands killed, 4,000 deported to Algeria in North Africa.

41. Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther

In Goethe's novel, Werther is a Romantic who seeks to free himself from society to fulfill himself. He believed in himself, but society didn't, and he eventually commits suicide. Goethe later rejects Romanticism in favor of Classicism.

29. France's July Revolution of 1830

It was a rebellion that started after Charles X issued the July Ordinances on July 26, 1830. The edicts imposed rigid censorship on the press, dissolved the legislative assembly and reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections.

47. William Wordsworth

Leader of English Romanticism who published works in the countryside. Greatly showed a love for nature. He claimed to experience invisible things. He thought that nature could teach about humans and felt that nature had a mysterious force and was alive and sacred.

36. Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy

Leader of Italy's resurgence, he was a nationalist that founded Young Italy in 1831. Goal was creation of a united Italian Republic. Wanted Italians to love their country! Revolts followed, but eventually counterrevolutionary forces like Austria were able to win out.

16. Germanic Confederation

League of German states created by the Congress of Vienna to replace the Confederation of the Rhine. Austria, Prussia, and the other thirty-six states formed this in order to gain more power. But it ended up being powerless since they always needed the consent of the federal diet. Metternich, Austria's, foreign minister used it mainly to stop revolutionary ideas from spreading. He did not believe in each national group having its own government form because it could destroy a vast Empire like the Austrian.

35. Louis Kossuth

Led the Hungarian liberals, he argued for "commonwealth" status. Hungarians were willing to keep the Habsburg monarch but wanted their own legislature. Metternich was dismissed! They got the right to have their own national army, have their own legislature, and control their foreign policy and budget. Habsburg monarch means their still Austrian.

17. Burschenschaften

Liberal and national movements in the German states seemed largely limited to university professors and students. The latter began to organize Burschenschaften, student societies dedicated to fostering the goal of a free, united Germany. Their ideas and their motto, " Honor, Liberty, Fatherland, " were in part inspired by Fredrich Ludwig Jahn.

49. Ludwig van Beethoven and Hector Berlioz

Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer. A crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, he remains one of the most famous and influential of all composers. Hector Berlioz was a French Romantic composer, best known for his compositions Symphonie fantastique and Grande messe des morts. Berlioz made significant contributions to the modern orchestra with his Treatise on Instrumentation.

3. "legitimacy"

Metternich was a strong advocate of the principle of legitimacy. To reestablish peace and stability in Europe, he considered it necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions. This had already been done in the restoration of the Bourbons in France and Spain, as well as in the return of a number of rulers to their thrones in the Italian states. However, this principle was overshadowed in many places because there were more practical approaches.

15. Carbonari

Much of Italy was under Austrian domination, and all the states had extreme reactionary governments eager to smother any liberal or nationalist sentiment. Nevertheless, secret societies motivated by nationalistic dreams and known as the Carbonari ("charcoal burners") continued to conspire and plan for the Revolution.

33. France's Second Republic

New constitution created the "Second Republic" with a one house legislature composed of 750 reps elected by universal male suffrage (term of 3 years) and a president elected the same way for 4 years. Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte elected president, soon to become Emperor. After much fighting after a revolution in France, a republic emerged after a new constitution. It had one house of legislature and universal male suffrage. Napoleons nephew would soon overthrow.

18. the Decembrist Revolt

Nicholas was to become King of Russia, but it was not known that Constantine abdicated, so military leaders of Northern Union rebelled. Crushed by Nicholas' forces. Made Nicholas become a reactionary.

25. utopian socialism

Philosophy introduced by the Frenchman Charles Fourier in the early nineteenth century. Utopian socialists hoped to create humane alternatives to industrial capitalism by building self-sustaining communities whose inhabitants would work cooperatively. Utopian socialists were intellectuals and theorists in the early 19th century who favored equality in social and economic conditions and wished to replace private property and competition with collective ownership and cooperation.

10. Monroe Doctrine

President James Monroe of the new United States of America guaranteed the independence of these new Latin American States, and warned Europe about trying to get them back. However, the British naval fleet did much more to prevent re-colonization than this outgoing document.

31. Reform Act of 1832

Recognized changes in British society that came about by the industrial revolution. disenfranchised 56 rotten boroughs and created 42 new towns and cities. Industrial urban communities now have a say in government. Property voting, number of voters is 814,000. Benefited upper middle class.

45. neo-Gothic architecture

Revival of gothic architecture in turn led to neo-gothic cathedrals, parliamentary buildings, and even railway stations.

27. Robert Owen's New Lanark

Robert Owen was a Welsh social reformer and one of the founders of utopian socialism and the cooperative movement. He worked in the cotton industry in Manchester before setting up a large mill at New Lanark in Scotland. In 1824, Owen travelled to America to invest the bulk of his fortune in an experimental 1,000-member colony on the banks of Indiana's Wabash River, called New Harmony. New Harmony was intended to be a Utopian society. Transformed a squalid factory town into a healthy community. Believed humans would reveal their true goodness if they live in a cooperative environment. New Lanark became a successful business and an epitome of utopian socialism as well as an early example of a planned settlement and so an important milestone in the historical development of urban planning.

8. the congress system

The Concert of Europe, also known as the Congress System or the Vienna System after the Congress of Vienna, represented the balance of power that existed in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the outbreak of World War I (1914). The 4 congresses that were held by the concert of Europe were meant to promote peace and order in Europe, and further the conservative agenda.

1. Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states mainly the countries part of the Quadruple Alliance ( Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, though the delegates had arrived and were already negotiating by late September 1814. The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other off and remain at peace.

13. Corn Laws and the Peterloo Massacre

The Corn Law of 1815 put high tariffs on foreign grain, which made it even more expensive for the working class. The Corn Laws were measures enforced in the United Kingdom between 1815 and 1846, which imposed restrictions and tariffs on imported grain. They were designed to keep grain prices high to favour domestic producers. Things got bad when calvary attacked 60,000 people protesting at St. Peter's Fields in Manchester. 11 people got killed. The government restricted large public meetings and the dissemination of pamphlets among the poor.

19. Tsar Nicholas I

The Emperor/King of Russia. Crushed the Decembrist Revolt, became reactionary. Strengthened bureaucracy and political police. He wanted to interfere in all revolution everywhere- he hated revolution. Called "Policeman of Europe"

7. Concert of Europe

The European powers' fear of revolution and war led them to develop the Concert of Europe as means to maintain the new status quo they had constructed. This accord grew out of the reaffirmation of the Quadruple Alliance in November 1815.

43. brothers Grimm

The Grimm brothers in Germany, like other Romantics, had an interest in the past. They collected local fairy tales and published them.

46. Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron

The first was a romantic poet. He wrote Prometheus Unbound and portrayed a revolt by humans against laws that bind them. He was expelled from school for advocating atheism. The second portrayed himself as a romantic hero like the one in his story Childe Harold's Pilgramage. He was part of the Greece freedom movement.

11. Greek Revolt

The principle of intervention proved to be a double-edged sword. Designed to prevent revolution, it could also be used to support revolution if the great powers found it in their interest to do so. In 1821, the Greeks revolted against their Ottoman Turkish masters. The Greek revolt was soon transformed into a noble cause by an outpouring of European Sentiment for the Greeks' struggle. Britain and France helped out by defeating Turkish armada. Russia also invades, and Turks let European powers decide fate of Greece. Greece becomes and independent country, and this was basically the only time the principle of intervention was used to support revolution.

12. Britain's Tories and Whigs

Two different political factions of parliament: Tories and Whigs. Both still aristocratic, but Whigs being supported by the industrial middle class. Tories didn't want to change government, and they controlled a lot of it. Tories became unpopular because of their response to economic difficulties. Still managed to not reform the government. The Whigs and Tories are referred to as the first political parties, forming after Charles II dissolved the Cavalier court. Separation of powers between the sovereign monarchy and political Parliament lay the foundation for their differences. The Whigs , named after the Scottish Presbyterian Whigamors, were the more liberal of the two parties. In 1679 England, the Whigs opposed corruption that was occurring within the monarchy. They believed in limiting the powers of the king. They also spoke against the protestant persecution and the possible succession of the Catholic Duke of York to the throne. The Tories, named for Irish Catholics who became outlaws during the Religious Reformation, were the more conservative party of the time. They remained loyal to both the monarchy and the church, supporting the traditions and privileges of the throne. In the American colonies, Whigs supported American independence, while the Tories maintained their loyalty to the throne.

30. parties of Movement and Resistance

Two parties of deciding the direction of the bourgeois monarchy within the Chamber of Deputies. The former was led by Adolpe Theirs who wanted an active foreign policy and a limited expansion of the franchise. The latter was led by Francois Guizot who believed France was perfect as is. The latter prevailed. The leader helped Louis to diminish responsibility and pursuing a policy favoring the interests of the wealthier manufacturers and tradespeople. Both were composed of upper-middle class representatives. Party of Movement (Aolphe Thiers) wanted ministerial responsibility and an active foreign policy + limited expansion. Party of Resistance (Francois Guizot) thought that France had reached perfect form of government and that no changes were necessary. Party of Resistance dominated and Francois worked closely with Louis-Phillippe.

34. Frankfurt Assembly

Universal male suffrage allowed delegates to be elected in each nation in the German confederation. Frankfurt Assembly's purpose was to create a unified Germany. Frankfurt Assembly created an idea for a new united Germany after the Big German and Small German debate ended when Austria withdrew. Happiness short lived, because Prussia's King Frederick William IV refused to become Emperor of Germany.

4. balance of power

a distribution of power among several states such that no single nation can dominate or interfere with the interests of another. In making these territorial rearrangements, the diplomats at Vienna believed they were forming a new balance of power that would prevent any one country from dominating Europe.