Chapter 22

Migration

1. Columbian exchange also included spread of human populations a. 1500-1800, largest migrants where African Slaves going to S. American, N. American, and caribbean destinations. b. Smaller migration were Europeans going to the Americas 2. During the 19th century, Europeans traveled in massive numbers to the western hemisphere as well as south Africa, Australia, and Pacific Islands where diseases had diminished indigenous populations.

Population

The columbian exchange of plants and animals fueled a surge in world population. 1500- recovery of Bubonic plague (425 million) 1600- increased by 25% (545 million) 1700-even more (610 million) 1750-more (720 million) 1800- morer (900 million)

Manila Galleons

1. For 250 years, form 1565-1815, Spanish Galleons (sleek, fast, heavily armed ships, capable of carrying large cargo) regularly plied the Pacific Ocean from Manila in the Philippines, and Acapulco on the west coast of Mexico. a. From Manila they took Asian luxury goods to Mexico and exchanged them for silver. b. Most precious metal made its way to China, where their thriving domestic economy demanded it for their currency. It got such a point where the europeans traded it for Chinese Gold which was then profitable for more silver and goods in Japan. 2. Some of the Asian good from Manila remained in Mexico or went to Peru, where they contributed to a comfortable life for Spanish ruling elites. Most, however, went overland across Mexico and then traveled to spain and European markets through the Atlantic.

Conquest of the Philippines

1. Spanish forces approached the Philippines in 1565 under Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who named the islands after Kind Philip II of Spain. a. Legazpi overcame the people with almost no blood due to their disorganization. 2. by 1575 Spanish forces controlled the coastal regions of the central and northern islands, during the 17th century they extended their authority to most parts of archipelago except southern island of Mindano, where a large muslim community resisted them.

Captain James Cook

Along with the Russian explorers and Magellan, one of the most important Pacific explorers was Captain Cook (1728-1779) who led three expeditions to the Pacific and died in a conflict with the indigenous people of Hawai'i, where he showed deep interest in Polynesian cultures By the time of Cook's end of voyages. European Geographers had reasonably well understanding of the worlds basins.

Hemispheric Links

1. Columbus never actually reached the riches of Asia and even after three voyages, he obtained very little Gold in the Caribbean. a. However, as news spread about his voyages, hundreds of Spanish, English, French, and Dutch mariners soon followed in his wake. These all led to the links between the eastern and western hemisphere, and paved the way for the conquest, settlement, and exploitation of the Americans by Europeans.

The Circumnavigation

1. Magellan's voyage was quite the trip. a. After starting with 280 men and 5 ships, he ended up with 18 men (excluding himself) in one spice-laden ship carrying cargo of cloves from the islands of Maluku gotten by his surviving crew members after he died in the Philippine islands after getting caught in a local political dispute. b. Magallen began his trip in september 1519 where he first headed to the eastern coast of South america in search for a straight leading to the Pacific. c. After reaching this straight he and his crew members set on a 4 month trek to Guam where they refreshed supplies. On the way there although is where his men really began to suffer for they survived on rotten Biscuits, rats, ox hides, and leather. This resulted in the occurrence of scurvy in many men where most died. d. After Guam they headed to the Philipines and after that the survivors headed to the islands of Maluku and returned through the Indian Ocean after 3 years.

The Volta do mar

1. The prevailing winds often made mariners take indirect routes to their destinations. a. European mariners managed to easily sail from the Mediterranean to the Canary islands since the regular trade winds blew from the north east. However, their journey back was complicated because they had realized through experience that going against the winds was much less safer and longer than taking indirect routes that went with the routes. b. By the 15th century, Portuguese mariners had developed a strategy called the "Volta do Mar" (Return through the sea) that enabled them to sail from the canaries to Portugal. They sailed northwest into open ocean until they found westerly winds and then turned east for the last leg. c. When Vasco De Gama departed from India, he sailed south to Cape Verde, and then allowed trade winds to carry him south west into the Atlantic Ocean where he reached the coast of brazil. There he caught the prevailing the winds that enabled him to travel east , around the Cape of Good Hope and enter the Indian Ocean. d. As European mariners became familiar with the wind systems, they created variations of the Volta do Mar.

Encounters in siberia

1 far more extensive were Russian acquisitions in northeastern Eurasia. Even theough he dense forests and frozen tundras in Siberia created challenges, merchants made their way for the quest of fur. a. throughout the modern are, fur was a lucrative commodity that lured Russians eastward, just as North American fur attracted the English, French, and Dutch. 2. Their expansion NE eurasia began in 1581, when the wealthy Stroganov family hired a freebooting adventurer named Yermak to capture the Khanate of Sibir in the Ural mountains. a. The future led Russian explorers to push into interior regions of Siberia by the great rivers. b. in 1639 that had mae their way across the Eurasian landmass and reached the Pacific Ocean

Portugese exploration

1) Portuguese explorers where most prominent in the search from fresh resources to exploit and lands to cultivate. a. It wasn't until the 13th century when Portuguese seamen ventured away from the coasts and into the Atlantic Ocean . b. Originally seeking fish, seals, whales, timber and lands where they could grow wheat to supplement the small resources of Portugal. 2. By the 14th century they had discovered the inhabited Azores and Madeiras Islands. a. They also called often to the Canary islands inhabited by the indigenous Guanche people which Italian and Iberian mariners had visited since the earlier 14th century. 3. Because the European demand for sugar was so strong, establishing sugar plantations in the Atlantic Islands was very tempting a. Italian mariners had organized sugar plantations in Palestine and the Mediterranean Islands since 12 century. Then in the 15th century Italian investors worked with Portuguese mariners to establish plantations in the Atlantic Islands . 4. Continuing Portuguese voyages also led to the establishment of plantations on more southerly Atlantic Islands including Cape Verde Islands, Sao Tome, Principe, and Fernando Po.

Knowledge of Winds and Currents

1. After being equipped with advanced technological hardware, European mariners ventured into the oceans and gradually compiled practical knowledge about the winds and currents that determined navigational possibilities in the age of sail. 2. In both Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, strong winds blow regularly to create "Wind wheels" both north and south of the equator, as well as the fact ocean currents follow similar patterns. a. Between about 5 and 25 degrees of latitude north and south of the equator, trade winds blow from the east. b. Between 30 and 60 degrees north and south, westerly winds prevail . 2. Winds and currents in the Indian Ocean follow a different but still reliable pattern. a. During the summer months, generally between April and October, monsoon winds blow from southwest throughout the Indian Ocean basin. While in the winter, they blow from the northeast. b. Once mariners understood these patterns, they were able to take advantage of prevailing winds and currents to sail to almost any part of the earth.

Missionary Effects

1. Alongside material incentives, the goal of expanding christianity also drove europeans into the larger world. a. The New Testament specifically urged Christians to spread the religion. b. Their effort took both peaceful and violent routes. During the Mongol rule, Franciscan and Dominican missionaries had traveled as far as India, C. Asia, and China in search of Converts. c. Their efforts turned to a more violent manner. Beginning of the 11th century, western europeans had launched a series of holy wars and crusades against the Muslims in Palestine, the Mediterranean islands, and Iberia. d. Their zeal mainly remained in Iberia, where the reconquista came to an end in 1492: Muslim kingdom of Granada fell to Spanish Christian forces just weeks before Christopher Columbus set sail to the western hemisphere. 2. The various motives for exploration combined and reinforced each other. a. *Dom Henrique of Portugal often known as Prince Henry the Navigator, promoted voyages of exploration in west Africa specifically to: -Enter the gold trade -Discover profitable new trade routes -Gain intelligence about the extent of Muslim rule -Win converts and make alliances against Mulsims with any Christian rulers b. *Portuguese Mariners Vasco de Gama reached the Indian Port of Calicut in 1498 and when asked what he wanted he replied Christians and Spices. c. Thus the goal of spreading Christianity became a powerful justification and reinforcement for the more material motives for the the voyages of exploration

Epidemic Disease and Population decline

1. Beginning in 1519, the epidemic of small pox hit the Aztec empire, often in combination with other diseases and within a century the indigenous population of mexico had declined 90% from 17 million to 1.3. By that time the Spanish conquerors had imposed their rule on Mexico and the traditions of the indigenous peoples had disappeared or assimilated into Spanish domination. 2. Small pox and other disease also hit remote areas of North and South America and sparked epidemics even before the first European explorers arrived in those regions. a. By the 1530's small pox traveled north to the great lakes and south to Argentina from Mexico. 3. The Pacific where hit with the same kinds of devastating effects on a smaller scale. The disease from the Columbian exchange was about the worst demographic calamity in all of world history. between 1500 and 1800, upwards of 100 million died of diseases imported into the Americas and Pacific.

British Hegemony

1. British forces fought little in Europe, mainly because their Prussian allies were holding off massive armies seeking to surround and crush the expansive Prussian state. 2. However else where, the British armies and navy handily overcame their enemies. They ousted French merchants from India and took control of french colonies in Canada. a. However they allowed french authorities to retain most of their Caribbean possessions and the Spanish to retain Cuba. 3. They took florida from the Spanish

The Seven Years War

1. Commercial rivalries combined with political differences and came to a head in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). Seven Years war was a global conflict in that it took place in Europe, India, the Caribbean, and north America. As well as involving Asian and indigenous American peoples as well as Europeans. This had laid the foundation for 150 years of British imperial hegemony in the world. 2. In Europe the war pitted Britain and Prussia against France, Austria, and Russia. In india, British and French forces each allied with local rulers and engaged in contested hegemony in the Indian Ocean. 3. In the Caribbean, Spanish forces joined with the french in an effort to limit British forces joined with French in an effort to limit British expansion in the Western hemisphere. 4. In north America, where the war had merged with a conflict already known as the French and Indian war (1754-1763)- British and French armies made seperate alliances with indigenous peoples in an effort to outmaneuver each other.

Christopher Colombus

1. Cristoforo Colombo, known as Christopher Columbus in English, was the man to suggest a route to the markets in Asia while Portuguese mariners where heading to the indian markets. a. Columbus believed that the Eurasian landmass covered 270 degrees of longitude and that the earth was 17000 nautical miles (while infcat its 140 degrees of longitude and in 25000 nautical miles). b. By his calculations, Columbus Japan should have been 2500 nautical miles west of the canary islands. in truth it was 10,000 nautical miles. 2. Columbus was hoping to get royal sponsorship for his voyage. The Portuguese court declined his proposal, partly out of skepticism and because Dias's voyage had already pointed a way to India. 3. It wasn't until King and Queen Ferdinand and Isabel of Spain eventually agreed to sponsor Columbus. Which was actually financed by Italian bankers. a. In august of 1492, his fleet of 3 ships departed Palos in S. Spain. He sailed south to the Canaries and headed west through the trade winds b. He then made it to the island of Taino on August 12 in the Bahamas with the inhabitants known as the Guanahani. Columbus had though this was San Salvador (Watling Island). 4. Thinking that he was in the spice islands known as the Indies, he called the Taino "Indians". a. He then sailed along the Caribbean in search of Gold for almost 3 months, and at the large island of Cuba he sent a delegation to seek the court of the emperor of China. b. He reported when he returned to spain that he reached the islands of the coast of Asia.

Conquest of Java

1. Dutch mariners however, did not worry about converting people into christianity in their islands of Indonesia. They concentrated instead on the trade in spices, particularly cloves, nutmeg, and mace. a. The architect of Dutch policy was Jan Pieterzoon Coen, who in 1619 founded Batavia on the island of Java to serve as an entrepot for the VOC. b. Batavia occupied a strategical site, near the sunda straight, and its market attracted both Chinese and Malay merchants. 2. Coens plan was to establish a VOC monopoly over spice production and trade. a. Coen brought his naval force to bear on the small Indonesian islands and forced them to deliver to the VOC b. On larger islands like Java, he took advantage of tensions between local princes and authorities and exctracted concessions from many in return for providing aid against the others. By the 17th century, teh VOC controlled all ports of Java and spice bearing islands in Archipalago. 3. They made alliances with local authorities to maintain order in most regions, reserving for direct Dutch rule only BAtavia and important spice bearing islands like Amboina, and the Banda islands. They sought less to rule than to control the production of spices. a. They uprooted spice-bearing plants on Islands they did not control and mercilessly attacked people who sold their spices to merchants not associated with the VOC. These made the netherlands the most prosperous land in europe during the 17th century.

Afonso d'Alboquerque

1. Equipped with heavy artillery, Portuguese vessels were able to overpower most other craft that they encountered. a. The architect of their aggressiveness was Afonso d'Alboquerque, commander of the Portuguese forces in the Indian Ocean. b. With him they took over Hormuz in 1508, Goa in 1510, and Melaka in 1511. From these points he sought to control Indian Ocean trade by making ships purchase safe-conduct passes and present them in Portuguese trading posts or very serious action was taken. 2. However, Alboquerque wasn't as strong as he thought he was for while Portuguese did supply half the pepper, Arab, Indian, and Malay merchants played very prominent roles in Indian Ocean commerce without normally taking safe-conduct passes. The Arab vessels delivered shipments through the red sea, which Portuguese forces never managed to control, to Cairo and Mediterranean routes. 3. By the late 16th century, Portugals influence weakened since they were a very small society and most of their crews where Spanish, English, and Dutch sailors. Most prominent of those who followed the portuguese where the English and Dutch.

The Lure of Trade

1. Even more tempting than exploring for fresh lands and resources was the goal of establishing maritime trade routes to the markets of Asia. a. For during the time of the Mongol Empire, European merchants often traveled overland as far as China to trade Silk, spices, Porcelain and other Asian goods. b. However, with the collapse of the Mongols in the 14th century, and the spread of the Bubonic Plague, overland trade on the silk roads became a lot less safer. 2. Muslim merchants continued to bring Asian goods through the Indian Ocean and the Red sea to Cairo, where Italian merchants purchased them for distribution in West Europe. However the prices at Cairo were high. 3. By the 14th century, the wealthy class of Europe regarded the Indian pepper and Chinese ginger as expensive necessities, and especially prized cloves and nutmeg fro the spice islands of Maluku. a. Merchants and monarchs alike realized that by offering direct access to Asian markets and eliminating Muslim intermediaries, new maritime trade routes would increase the quantities of spices and other Asian goods available in Europe, and would also yield enormous profits. 4. There was also African trade that had called them to sea. a. For since the 12th century, Europeans had purchased west African gold, ivory, and slaves delivered by trans-Saharan camel caravans of Muslim merchants to north African ports. b. Gold was an especially important commodity because the precious metal was Europeans' principal form of payment for Asian goods. c. Maritime routes that eliminated Muslim intermediaries and offered more direct access to African markets would benefit European Merchants.

American Crops

1. Food crops from Americas took roots in Africa, Asia, and Europe through the Columbian exchange. a. These included maize, potatoes, beans, tomatoes, peppers, peanuts, manioc, papayas, guava, avocados, pineapples, and cacao. 2. By the 18th century maize and potatoes had contributed to a sharply increased number of calories in Eurasian diets. a. Maize became important in China because it grew in areas unsuitable for rice and millet. b. With the exception of Bengal (india), Asian lands proved less welcoming to the potato. But did catch on to most of Northern Europe, from Ireland to Russia. 3. Tomatoes and peppers had provided vitamins and zesty flavors in lands from west Europe to China. a. Peanuts and Manioc flourished in tropical SE Asian and W African soils that otherwise would not produce large yields. b. Also served medical treatments like the bark of Peruvian cinchona tree, effective for malaria.

Ships and Sails

1. From all their experience in the coastal waters of the Atlantic, European sailors learned to construct ships strong enough to survive most adverse conditions. a. Beginning about 12th century, they increased the maneuverability of their craft by building a rudder onto the stern (The sternpost rudder was a chinese invention that diffused across the Indian Ocean and probably became known to Europeans through Arab ships in the Mediterranean). b. They outfitted their vessels with two main types of sails, both used since classical times. Square sails, which hadn't sone too well in crosswinds, and Triangular lateen sails were very maneuverable and could catch winds from side and back. c. With a combination of these two sails European ships were able to use whatever winds arose. Their ability to tack, to advance against the wind by sailing across it was all crucial for the exploration of regions with uncooperative winds.

Food Crops ad Animals

1. However after the 18th century, the affects of the Columbian exchange began to increase human popualtion. a. A whole variety of food crops and animals had helped better nourish societies was an important factor in the population growth and hasn't stopped until the present. 2. Out of Eurasia from the western hemisphere traveled wheat, rice, sugar, bananas, apples, cherries, peaches, peas, and citrus fruits. (Wheat i particular grew well on the plains of North America and on the pampas of Argentina, regions too dry or cold for maize. 3. Africa contributed Yams, Okra, collard greens, and coffee. a. Dairy and meat yeilding animals -horse, cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and chickens went from Europe to the Americas.

The Russian Occupation of Siberia

1. However, they was the beginning of Russian influence into Siberia from the criminals, miffits and slaves looking to begin a new start. a. For in Siberia, the landowners offered working conditions that were much lighter than in Russia. This led to small agricultural settlements (especially in Amur river valley). 2. Over time Siberian trading posts developed into Russian towns with Russian-speaking populations attending Russian Orthodox churches. a. By the year 1763 some 420000 Russians lived in Siberian (two times amount of habitants).

Competition and Conflict

1. Indeed throughout the 17th and early 18th centuries, commercial and political rivalries ended up in running wars between ships flying different flags. a. Dutch vessels were most prominent in the Indian Ocean, enabling the VOC to dominate the spice trade. Dutch forces expelled most portuguese merchants for SE Asia, preventing English mariners from establishing secure footholds there. 2. Although by the 18th century, the trade in Indian cotton and tea from Ceylon had begun to overshadow the spice trade. a. English and French merchants in India had become dominant carriers in the Indian Ocean . b. Fierce competition generated violence: in 1746 french forces attacked one of the english three major trading ports at the Madras. 3. Commercial competition also led to conflict in the Caribbean and the America's. English Pirates and privateers preyed on Spanish shipping from Mexico, often seizing vessels carrying silver. a. English and French forces constantly skirmished and fought over sugar islands in the Caribbean as well as North America.

*Prince Henry of Portugal

1. It was during the year of 1415 when European exploration had dramatically quickened after Prince Henry of Portugal conquered the moroccan port of Ceuta and sponsored a series of voyages down the west African coast. a. Portuguese merchants soon established a trading posts at Sao Jorge da Mina (modern Ghana) and other strategic locations. b. there they exchanged horses, leather, textiles, and metalware for gold and slaves. 2. This exploration continued after his death and in 1488 *Bartolomeu Dias rounded Cape of good Hope and entered the Indian Ocean. He didn't proceed further due to storms and restless crew. a. The sea route to Indian Ocean had offered merchants access to buy Silk, spices, and pepper at the source rather than through Muslim Intermediaries.

English and Dutch Trading posts

1. Like their predecessors, English and Dutch merchants built trading posts on Asian coasts and sought to channel trade through them, but they did not attempt to control shipping on the high seas. a. They occasionally seized Portugal sites like Melaka in 1641. But other colonies remained under Portugal like Goa, until 1961. 2. Meanwhile English and dutch mariners established parallel networks. a. English Merchants concentrated on India, building posts in Bombay, Madras, Calcutta. b. While the dutch remained in Cape town, Colombo, and batavia (island of java). 3. What made Dutch and English merchants so much more successful was that they sailed faster, cheaper, and more powerful ships. a. They also conducted trade more efficiently through commercial organization- Joint stock company- which enabled investors to realize handsome profits while limiting the risk to their investment.

Environmental effects of Global Trade

1. Pressures fell on certain animal species that were targeted for their fur and ivory. Particularly in China, Europe and North America. 17th century-200,0000 pelts flowed from Siberia 18th century-16 million North American Beavers 2. Early modern hunters harvested enormous amounts of deer, codfish, whales, seals, and other species as merchants sought to supply skins, food, oil, and others. 3. By the late 16th century, conditions favored human exploitation of natural resources and agriculture as Europeans permanently linked worlds port cities. a. During the next two centuries, the volume of global trade expanded as english, dutch, french and other merchants contributed to global markets. b. During the 17th century, Dutch merchants imported wheat from S. Africa, cowry shells from India, sugar from Brazil. -Wheat served as food for domestic consumers, bankers, or manufacturers. -Cowry shells were a currency in sub-Saharan Africa and were exchanged for Slaves by English and Dutch. (plantations in the western hemisphere) -Sugar went on the market at Amsterdam and found its way to consumers in Europe -In the 18th century it grew with the emergence of coffee, tea, sugar, and tobacco. -By 1750, all parts of the world participated in global trade except Australia

Native peoples of Siberia

1. Siberia was home to about 26 different major ethnic groups. All lived by hunting, trapping, fishing, or herding reindeer. They varied widely in language and religion. a. They also responded differently to the tribute extracted from them by the Russians. b. Some groups readily accepted the trade of Iron tools, woven cloth, flour, tea, and liquor for the skins of fur-bearing animals such as otter, lynx, marten, artic fox, and sleek sable. 2. Others resented the ever-increasing demands of their tribute. This led to the punishing raids and hostage taking of the Russians. a. The Yakut people of Lena and Aldan river valleys in C. Siberia launched a revolt where they lost 70% of their people over the coarse of 40 years 3. Apart form Military violence, the inhabitants suffered from disease. a. As this violence diminished the fur trade, the Russians realized their source of fur relied on the protection of the "small peoples". So then began the attempt to convert Siberian peoples to orthodox Christianity. b. This was not successful for the Siberians showed little interests except for criminals and slaves and low status people. 4. Also once indigenous people became chirstians they were exempt from the tributes required which hurt the fur trade. a. For this reason the drive for converts wasnt as strong for the Russians as it was for the Spanish.

Manila

1. Spanish policy in the Philippines revolved around trade and Christianity. Manila soon emerged as a prominent multi cultural port city that had silk. a. Chinese merchants were very successful and provided silk to Spanish merchants to sell to Mexico in Manila galleons. They occupied 1/4 of the population in the 17th century. b. Their commercial success had brought suspicion on their community and resentful Spanish and filipinos had massacred them in thousands in 1603, 1639, 1662, 1686, 1762, and 1819. c. Although they still relied heavily on the Chinese merchants for trade. 2. Spanish authorities also sought to spread religion (Roman Catholicism throughout archipelago. a. They had converted prominent filipinos in hope of attracting more, and built schools, teaching doctrine. b. they encountered resistance in highlands where influence wasnt great but over the longterm converted and in the 19th century became one of the most fervent Roman Catholic lands.

Portuguese Trading Posts

1. The Portuguese mariners where the first to build a trading-post empire. Their goal was not to conquer territory but to control trade routes by forcing merchant vessels to call at fortified trading sites and pay duties there. a. Vasco da Gama obtained permission form local authorities to establish a trading city in Calicut when he went there 1498. 2. By the 16th century, Portuguese mariners had built more than 50 trading posts between west Africa and east Asia. a. At Sao Jorge da Mina, they traded in west African slaves and and at Mozambique, they attempted to control the south African Gold trade. From Hormuz the controlled access to Persian Gulf and from Goa they organized trade in Indian pepper. At Melaka they oversaw shipping between S. China sea and the Indian Ocean, and they channeled trade in cloves and nutmeg through Ternate in the spice islands of Maluku. Posts at Macau and Nagasaki offered access to markets of China and Japan.

Biological exchanges

1. The columbian exchange, known as the global diffusion of plants, food crops, animals, human populations, and disease pathogens that took place after voyages of exploration by Christopher columbus. a. These spreads had much more profound consequences then earlier rounds of biological exchange. The exchange of lands with radically different flora, fauna, and disease which had just recently been interacted with eachother had set off a round of biological exchange that permanently altered humans environment. 2. Beginning of the 16th century, infectious disease like affected the peoples of the Americas and Pacific with smallpox, as well as measles, diptheria, whooping cough, and influenza. 3. In the eastern hemisphere these diseases became endemic, targeting 10-15%, mostly young children that eventually became immune.

Navigational Intrustments

1. The most important instruments aboard these vessels were the magnetic compasses and astrolabes (soon replaced by the cross staffs and back staffs). a. The compass was a chinese invention from the Tang or Song dynasty that was diffused over the Indian Ocean in the 11th century. By the mid-twelfth century, the european mariners used compasses to determine their heading in Mediterranean and Atlantic waters. b. The astrolabe was a simplified version of an instrument used by Greek and Persian astronomers to determine latitude by measuring the angle of the sun or the pole star above the horizon. c. Portuguese mariners visiting the Indian Ocean in the 15th century had encountered Arab sailors using simpler and more serviceable instruments for determining latitude, which the Portuguese used as models for thecreation of the Cross staffs and back staffs. 2. European mariners' ability to determine direction and latitude enabled them to assemble a large amount of information about the Earth's Geography and to find their way around the World's oceans some accuracy.

Expoloration of the Pacific

1. The pacific Ocean had taken almost three centuries for European explorers to chart its features. Many regions contributing in different ways. a. The Spanish had built on information from Magellans trip and established a trade route between the Philippines and Mexico. b. The English ventured into the Pacific in search of a northwest passage from Europe to Asia (even though there was a northwest passage but most of its route lies within the Artic Circle and was clogged with ice most of the year, and was only in the 20th century did Ronald Amundsen form Norway travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific). However while searching for the passage, English Mariners established many of the deatils of Pacific geography. In the 16th century, Sir Francis Drake scouted the west coast of North America as far as north vancouver Island. c. By mid-18th century the French mariners had joined the english in exploring the Pacific in search of a Northwest Passage. d. Russian Expansion was mostly a land-based affair in early modern times, but by the 18th century they too began exploring the Pacific. They commissioned the Danish navigator Vitus Bering to undertake two maritime expeditions (1725-1730 and 1733-1742) in search of a NE passage to Asian Ports He sailed the Artic Ocean and Bering strait, which separates Siberia from Alaska, and reconnoitered northern Asia as far as Kamchatka peninsula. Other Russian explorers made their way down the western Canadian coast to northern California. By 1800, Russian mariners were scouting the Pacific Ocean as far south as the Hawaiian Islands. They built a small fort on the island of Kaua'i and engaged in trade there in the early 19th century.

Ferdinand Magellan

1. The reconnaissance pf the Pacific Ocean began with Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan. a. While sailing in the service of Portugal, Magellan had visited ports throughout the Indian Ocean basin and travelled east as far as the spice Islands of Maluku. b. Ferdinand believed that the Spice islands and Asian markets lay fairly close to the western coast of the America's and decided to pursue a western route to Asian lands like Columbus. 2. He ended up sailing there in the service of Spain.

The Trading Companies

1. The two most powerful joint-stock companies by the english and dutch were the English east India company 1600 and the Dutch counterpart, The United East India Company 1602 (known for its initials VOC). a. Private merchants advanced funds to launch these companies, outfit them with commodities and money to trade. b. While they enjoyed government support, the companies were privately owned enterprises, unhampered by political oversight. Their Charters granted them the right to sell, buy. build trading posts and even make way in their interest. 2. They companies experienced immediate success a. 1601, 5 english ships set sail from london with cargoes of gold and silver worth 30,000 and returned with spices in the value of 1,000,000. b. the first dutch expedition didn't see as great results at first but still well. 3. Because of their advanced nautical technology, relentless pursuit, these two companies contributed to the early formation of a global trade network.

Transoceanic Trade

1. The voyages of European merchant mariners encouraged the emergence of a genuinely global trading system. a. As europeans established colonies in the Caribbean and the Americas, for example, trade networks extended to all areas of the Atlantic Ocean basin. b. European manufactured goods traveled west across the Atlantic in exchange for silver from Mexican and Peruvian mines and agricultural products like sugar and tobacco, both of which were in high demand among European textiles, guns, and other manufactured goods went south to west Africa, where merchants exchanged them for African slaves, who then went to tropical and subtropical regions of the western hemisphere to work on plantations.

*Vasco da Gama

1. Unfortunately, the Portuguese mariners did not immediately follow up Dias's voyage due to domestic and foreign problems that distracted royal attention. a. They proceeded in 1497, however, Vasco Da Gama departed Lisbon with a fleet of four armed merchant ships bound for India. b. His trip didnt go great. On the way there they went almost 3 months with out land, and had cargo that didn't excite the Indian markets. c. On his return voyage he lost half his crew, However his cargo of pepper and cinnamon was very profitable. Portuguese merchants immediately organized further voyages. d. By 1500 they had built a trading post in Calicut, and Portuguese merchants mariners soon called at ports throughout India and the Indian Ocean basin. 2. By the late 16th century, Dutch and English mariners had followed the Portuguese into the Indian Ocean.