Chapter 22: World War I

18th Amendment

"...the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is thereby prohibited." * passed in January 1919 (pg. A-8)

influenza epidemic

* 1918-1919 * = the most serious challenge to national public health during the war years * originated in South China, then spread to the Philippines, the U.S., and Europe * spread easily due to crowded conditions in military camps and on transport ships * killed over 21 million people worldwide (including 550,000 Americans in 10 months) (pg. 612)

Teddy Roosevelt

* 26th president of the United States (1901-1909) - Republican Believed in: 1. the superiority of Protestant Anglo-American culture and the goal of spreading its values and influence 2. in order to increase its economic and political stature, America must be militarily strong "Big Stick Diplomacy" (pg. 593)

William H. Taft

* 27th president of the United States (1909-1913) - Republican * "Dollar Diplomacy" - wanted to replace the militarism of the big stick with the more subtle and effective weapon of business investment - assumed that political influence would follow increased U.S. trade and investment (pg. 595)

Woodrow Wilson

* 28th president of the United States (1913-1921) Believed in: 1. free trade 2. that the U.S., with its superior industrial efficiency, could dominate world commerce 3. moralism/idealism "[Since] you are Americans and are meant to carry liberty and justice and the principles of humanity wherever you go, go out and sell goods that will make the world more comfortable and more happy, and convert them to the principles of America." Examples of Wilson's moralistic/interventionist foreign policy: 1. Mexican Revolution (pg. 595) * adopted the slogan "He Kept Us Out of War" in the 1916 presidential campaign (referring to WWI) (pg. 599)

Warren G. Harding

* 29th president of the United States (1921-1923) - Republican Background: * Election of 1920: James M. Cox (Democrat) v. Warren G. Harding (Republican) - Woodrow Wilson could not run for reelection because he was sick - Warren G. Harding was unqualified and had no real plan "America's present need is not heroics by healing; not nostrums but normalcy; not revolution but restoration." * Harding won the election by a landslide! - largest victory in history to that date - carried every state outside the South Legacy: - repudiated Wilson and the progressive movement - Americans wanted to pull back from moralism in public and international controversies (pgs. 618-619)

Open Door Policy

* American policy of seeking equal trade and investment opportunities in foreign nations or regions * first established in 1899 with reference to China * Background: - The Treaties of Nanjing (1842) and Wangxia (1844) had said that all nations should have equal access to any of the ports open to trade in China - BUT, after the first Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), various European nations began to establish "spheres of influence" in China - the U.S. didn't like this because it threatened the balance of power in Europe (risks: one European nation might become too powerful or might monopolize trade, China might be divided into colonies) * The 1899 Open Door notes said that: 1. each great power should maintain free access to any treaty port within its sphere of influence 2. only the Chinese government should collect taxes on trade 3. no great power having a sphere of influence should be granted exemptions from paying harbor dues or railroad charges * After the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, the U.S. circulated another note stressing the importance of preserving China's territorial and administrative integrity * Japan violated the Open Door principle with its presentation of the Twenty-One Demands to China in 1915 (pg. 594, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/429642/Open-Door-policy)

Root-Takahira Agreement

* Background: - Roosevelt built up American naval strength in the Pacific - In 1908, he sent battleships to visit Japan in order to show off U.S. power * Outcome: - an agreement between the U.S. and Japan to preserve the "existing status quo" in Asia - affirmed mutual respect for territorial possessions in the Pacific and the Open Door trade policy in China (pg. 594)

Russo-Japanese War (1904)

* Background: - Russia v. Japan - Problem: a total victory by Russia or Japan could upset the balance of power in East Asia and threaten American business enterprises there - Japanese won a series of military victories over Russia and began to seem like a dominant power in East Asia * Outcome: - Roosevelt mediated a settlement of the Russo-Japanese War at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1905 (--> won the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize) - Japan got control over Korea and Manchuria (pg. 594)

Woman Suffrage

* Before WWI, many individual states had already given women the right to vote - primarily Western states/territories - on the East Coast, some ethnic groups (Catholics, German Lutherans) opposed woman suffrage because they thought it would lead to prohibition * WWI --> women's rights groups began to focus on a national campaign for a constitutional amendment granting the vote to women - some also supported the war effort (b/c they thought that a show of patriotism would help them win the right to vote) - more militant suffragists (i.e. National Woman's Party, led by Alice Paul) used aggressive and dramatic strategies, hunger strikes, etc. * Nineteenth Amendment finally ratified in 1920 --> woman suffrage became legal nationwide (pg. 610-611)

FBI

* Bureau of Investigation in the Justice Department was created in 1908 * used to coordinate civilian intelligence * --> increase in surveillance (pg. 613)

Panama Canal

* Example of Roosevelt's "big stick diplomacy" * Background: - Since the 1880s, there had been plans to build a canal across the Isthmus of Panama - Roosevelt tried to negotiate a leasing agreement with Colombia (Panama was a province of Colombia) - This failed, so Roosevelt helped plot a revolt against Colombia with the cooperation of native forces and foreign promoters - Panama successfully got its independence from Colombia, and two weeks later, Panama signed a treaty granting the U.S. full sovereignty over a ten-mile-wide canal zone * Impact: "The inevitable effect of our building the canal must be to require us to police the surrounding premises" ---> Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (pg. 593)

labor strife

* In 1919, more than 4 million American workers were involved in more than 3,600 strikes * Causes: - increasing prices (especially for food, fuel, and housing) - end of government controls on industry --> many employers withdrew their recognition of unions - difficult working conditions (i.e. 12-hour days) * Large strikes received national attention. * Examples: - strike in Seattle, WA in 1919 became citywide and involved 60,000 workers - policemen's strike in Boston in 1919 --> ended when governor Calvin Coolidge called in the National Guard to restore order * Breaking of 1919-1920 steel strike was a bitter defeat for organized labor - biggest strike (involved 350,000 steelworkers) - centered in several mid-western cities - lasted from September 1919 to January 1920 - led by AFL - hoped to build on wartime gains - BUT: steel companies used black strikebreakers and branded the strikers as revolutionaries + used state/federal troops to break the strike (615)

Roosevelt Corollary

* President Theodore Roosevelt's policy asserting U.S. authority to intervene in the affairs of Latin American nations * an expansion of the Monroe Doctrine * Examples: - 1903 --> European countries had imposed a blockade on Venezuela because of non-repayment of debts, U.S. exercised "international police power" to prevent armed intervention by the Europeans - This rule was also used to justify armed intervention in the internal affairs of the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Haiti, Nicaragua, and Mexico (pg. 593)

Henry Cabot Lodge

* Republican Senator from Massachusetts (= majority leader of the Senate) * leader of the reservationists * hated Woodrow Wilson (pg. 617)

loans and trade

* Wilson wanted to stay neutral at the beginning of the war * BUT, he was convinced that wartime trade was necessary for the American economy ==> he refused to impose and embargo ==> trade with the Allies actually tripled * 1915: Wilson permitted loans to the belligerents - this greatly favored Britain and France ($2.25 billion loans to Allies v. $27 million loans to Germany) (not in textbook)

Lusitania

* a British passenger ship that was sailing off the coast of Ireland in 1915 * it was secretly carrying war materials * it was sunk by a German U-boat * 1,198 people died, including 128 American citizens U.S. response: 1. Wilson and the American press denounced the sinking as illegal 2. threatened to break off diplomatic relations with Germany unless it abandoned submarine warfare 3. began preparing for war -- increased military spending (pg. 599)

Zimmerman note

* a coded message sent by German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman to the German ambassador in Mexico - said that Mexico should take up arms against the U.S. - in return, Mexico would get back its "lost territory in New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona" - said that Germany and Mexico should be allies in a war against the U.S. Impact: - pro-war sentiment increased in the American Southwest - Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war (April 1917) (pg. 600)

United Fruit Company

* a company that owned 160,000 acres of land in the Caribbean by 1913 * produced tropical fruit (mostly bananas) and sold them in the U.S. and Europe * had a major impact on the economic and political development of several Latin American countries --> example of U.S. neocolonialism (pg. 595)

Dollar Diplomacy

* a policy that assumed that political influence would follow increase U.S. trade and investment * promoted by President Taft ==> "active intervention to secure for our merchandise and our capitalists opportunity for profitable investment" Examples: 1. American investment in Central America more than doubled from 1908 to 1914 ($41 million --> $93 million) - but thisactually ended up requiring military support --> Taft sent the navy and the marines to intervene in political disputes in Honduras and Nicaragua and prop up factions that were pledged to protect American business interests 2. Invested in China --> built the Hu-kuang Railway (southern and central China) and tried to help China get a loan to buy up all its foreign railways - but this backfired, because Russia and Japan had previously fought a war over railroad interests in Manchuria --> Japan and Russia signed a friendship treaty --> Impact: Open Door Policy failed, Japan-U.S. relations worsened (pg. 595)

big stick diplomacy

* based on the famous West African proverb quoted by Theodore Roosevelt: "Speak softly and carry a big stick." * Example: The Panama Canal - U.S. supported a Panamanian revolution against Colombia, and in return was granted sovereignty over the canal * Example: Japan - the U.S. built up American naval strength in the Pacific to show Japan how powerful the U.S. was --> Root-Takahira Agreement (1908) (pg. 593-594)

Eugene V. Debs

* founder of the American Railway Union (ARU), which had achieved a victory over the Great Northern rail line in 1894 (shortly before the Pullman Strike) * At first urged caution to the Pullman Strikers * Eventually supported the strike and was arrested for his role * After getting out of jail, Debs became committed to the ideals of SOCIALISM and helped form a political party dedicated to its principles (pg. 537)

reservationists

* led by Henry Cabot Lodge * had strong reservations about the League of Nations, especially the provisions for collective security (--> would take away the U.S.'s independence/sovereignty) * proposed a series of amendments that would have weakened the League (pg. 617)

Triple Entente

* one of the two great competing camps that existed in Europe in the early 1900's * also known as the Allies * included Great Britain, France, and Russia (pg. 598)

Triple Alliance

* one of the two great competing camps that existed in Europe in the early 1900's * also known as the Central Powers * included Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (pg. 598)

19th Amendment

* suggested by President Wilson in 1917 * passed by House in January 1918 * approved by Senate in June 1919 * ratified by state legislatures in August 1920 ==> woman suffrage became legal nationwide (pg. 611)

Prohibition

A ban on the production, sale, and consumption of liquor, achieved temporarily through state laws and the Eighteenth Amendment * temperance movement had been supported by many Americans, especially women, since before the Civil War - Woman's Christian Temperance Union = single largest woman's organization in American history * progressives and rural fundamentalists in Congress passed a constitutional amendment banning alcoholic drinks ==> ratified in 1919 Legacy/Problems: - increase in organized crime, especially after WWI (pg. 611)

Palmer Raids

Background: * 1918 Alien Act allowed the government to deport any immigrant found to be a member of a revolutionary organization 1. spring 1919 ==> extremists mailed bombs to prominent business and political leaders 2. June 1919 ==> simultaneous bombings in eight cities killed two people and damaged the house of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer Response: * 1919: Palmer used the Alien Act to arrest several hundred members of the IWW and the Union of Russian Workers. - 249 people were deported (including anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman) * 1920: 6,000 people in 33 cities (including many U.S. citizens and non-Communists!) were arrested. - 600 aliens were deported Response: 1. People realized that Palmer had overreacted ==> he lost popularity 2. A group of lawyers said that what Palmer had done was illegal Legacy: 1. American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) founded in 1920 (pg. 618)

Mexican Revolution (1911)

Background: 1. Brutal dictator (Porfirio Diaz) was overthrown and replaced by a popular democratic leader (Francisco Madero) 2. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson was worried about American business investments in Mexico Wilson's initial reaction: * At first, he supported the revolution and said that the U.S. wouldn't get involved in the Mexican civil war BUT THEN: * Francisco Madero was assassinated by his chief lieutenant (General Victoriano Huerta) So then, Wilson: 1. refused to recognize the Huerta regime (and convinced other countries, i.e. Britain, to do this also) 2. supplied arms to the Constitutionalists/Venustiano Carranza (--> people who were trying to overthrow Huerta) BUT: * Huerta remained in power Wilson's reaction: * invaded Mexico in April 1914 (--> not really a war, but 145 people died) The international community's reaction: 1. everybody strongly disapproved of the U.S. invasion (including both Huerta and Carranza) 2. there were protests against the U.S. 3. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile mediated the dispute Then... 1. Carranza managed to overthrow Huerta 2. Another man named Francisco "Pancho" Villa tried to overthrow Carranza --> Wilson supported Pancho Villa BUT: * Pancho Villa was unsuccessful So... 1. Wilson recognized Carranza 2. Pancho Villa felt betrayed --> tried to draw the U.S. into war 3. U.S. sent forces to try to capture Pancho Villa (= unsuccessful) 4. there were also more skirmishes between U.S. forces and Carranza Eventually: * the U.S. almost became involved in a war with Mexico in 1916, but never did LEGACY: 1. Mexico became suspicious and distrustful of the U.S. 2. there were limits to the idea of using American moralism/exceptionalism to guide foreign policy * European foreign policy had been guided by militarism and imperialism * the U.S. CLAIMED to be different from this -- said that it had no desire to interfere in the sovereignty of other countries * but, in fact, the U.S. did interfere in the sovereignty of other countries often (pg. 595-597)

Bolshevik Revolution

Background: 1. Czar Nicholas II of Russia was corrupt and repressive 2. he was overthrown by a coalition force in March 1917 3. the new government said that it would stay involved in WWI BUT: 1. Russia had suffered greatly during WWI 2. A group of Marxists called the Bolsheviks (led by Vladimir Lenin) wanted to overthrow the new government and: - make Russia communist - get Russia out of WWI * the Bolsheviks took control of the Russian government in November 1917 - this is called the "October Revolution" -- just to be confusing! U.S. reaction: 1. sympathetic to the original coalition force that had overthrown the czar 2. but hated the Bolsheviks because they were a threat to democracy --> refused to recognize them Bolshevik reaction: 1. characterized WWI as imperialist, discredited the Allies by publishing secret treaties that the czar had signed with the Allies, etc. (pg. 604) * March 1919 --> Russian Communists established the Comintern and called for a worldwide revolution * After WWI, the Paris Peace Conference basically ignored the political reality of the Russian Revolution (pg. 616)

ratification crisis

Background: 1. Republicans had won both the House and the Senate in the 1918 elections 2. The relationship between Wilson and the Republicans wasn't good * Wilson supported ratification of the Treaty of Versailles and joining the League of Nations * He was opposed by two major groups: 1. irreconcilables (opposed to the treaty in any form) 2. reservationists (supported the treaty with reservations) * Wilson went on a speaking tour in 1919 to get support for passing the treaty * BUT, he had a stroke and couldn't continue * November 1919 ==> Henry Cabot Lodge brought the treaty up for first vote (on the version with reservations) 1. irreconcilables voted no 2. many Democrats voted no (b/c they didn't want to compromise -- wanted the treaty to pass without reservations) ==> treaty failed Outcome: The treaty was never ratified and the U.S. never joined the League of Nations. (pgs. 617-618)

Sedition Act

Broad law restricting criticism of America's involvement in World I or its government, flag, military, taxes, or officials * an amendment to the Espionage Act * passed in 1918 * became a convenient vehicle for striking out at socialists, pacifists, radical labor activists, etc. (pg. 613)

Monroe Doctrine

Declaration by President James Monroe in 1823 that the Western Hemisphere was to be closed off to further European colonization and that the United States would not interfere in the internal affairs of European nations. (pg. 593)

Central Powers

Germany and its World War I allies in Austria, Italy, Turkey, and Bulgaria (pg. G-2)

Committee on Public Information (CPI)

Government agency during World Was I that sought to shape public opinion in support of the war effort through newspapers, pamphlets, speeches, films, and other media * led by George Creel * emphasized appeals to patriotism, manhood, heroism, and the fight for democracy * goal was to encourage American soldiers to enlist in the army * also led an aggressively negative campaign against German culture (--> prejudice, discrimination) (pg. 592, 601)

irreconcilables

Group of U.S. senators adamantly opposed to ratification of the Treaty of Versailles after World War I (pg. 617)

Allies

In World War I, Britain, France, Russia, and other belligerent nations fighting against the Central Powers but not including the United States. (pg. 598)

Liberty Bonds

Interest-bearing certificates sold by the U.S. government to finance the American World War I effort. * a way of paying for the war by borrowing from the public * federal debt jumped from $1 billion (1915) to $20 billion (1920)

League of Nations

International organization created by the Versailles Treaty after World War I to ensure world stability. - Goal: prevent war through collective security - brainchild of Woodrow Wilson (who won the Nobel Peace Prize for this) - the U.S. never joined the League for fear of loss of sovereignty - the League ultimately failed due to U.S. non-participation and lack of enforcement power (pgs. 616-618)

Espionage Act

Law whose vague prohibition against obstructing the nation's war effort was used to crush dissent and criticism during World War I * set severe penalties (up to twenty years' imprisonment and $10,000 fine) for anyone found guilty of aiding the enemy, obstructing recruitment, or causing insubordination in the armed forces * postmaster could exclude from the mail any newspapers or magazines he thought treasonous * used to target more than 300 people associated with the IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) --> ended America's radical labor movement (pg. 608, 612-613)

NAWSA

National American Woman Suffrage Association * worked to get women the right to vote * led by Carrie Chapman Catt, who at first had been opposed to the war but later worked in support of the war (pg. 602)

Red Scare

Post-World War I public hysteria over Bolshevik influence in the United States directed against labor activism, radical dissenters, and some ethnic groups. Legacy: 1. wholesale violation of constitutional rights 2. deportations of hundreds of innocent people 3. increase in nativism and intolerance 4. hurt the women's movement (b/c split fragile alliances between suffragists/feminists and socialist/labor groups) (pg. 618)

War Industries Board (WIB)

The federal agency that reorganized industry for maximum efficiency and productivity during World War I * example of the expanding regulatory power of the federal government * used price controls, conversion of industrial plants to wartime needs, etc. (pg. 606)

Selective Service Act

The law establishing the military draft for World War I * because army volunteer rates were lower for WWI than they had been for previous wars * --> registration and classification for military service of all men between ages twenty-one and thirty-five (pg. 602)

Great Migration

The mass movement of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North, spurred especially by new job opportunities during World War I and the 1920s * between 300,000 and 500,000 African Americans migrated between 1914 and 1920 - encouraged by kinship and community networks - single women often made the trip first - Most men did not actually find high-paying skilled jobs * Effects: - unions had refused to allow black members --> business used black labor as a way of keeping down wages - racial rioting/violence in many cities (St. Louis, Illinois in 1917, Chicago, Illinois in 1919) * Legacy: - rigid residential segregation in northern cities --> foundation for sprawling segregated ghettoes in twentieth century (pg. 613-614)

Treaty of Versailles

The treaty ending World War I and creating the League of Nations. (pg. 618)

Supreme Court decisions

Upheld the constitutionality of the Espionage and Sedition acts in several 1919 decisions (pg. 613)

progressive diplomacy

a policy in which commercial expansion was backed by a growing military presence in the Western Hemisphere * supported by presidents Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson (pg. 593)

Fourteen Points

a statement given on January 8, 1918 by United States President Woodrow Wilson declaring that World War I was being fought for a moral cause and calling for postwar peace in Europe * Woodrow Wilson made a speech before Congress in January 1918 - wanted to counter the Bolshevik campaign to discredit the Allies = the opening shot of the Soviet-American Cold War Three main ideas: 1. specific proposals for setting postwar boundaries in Europe (**self-determination**) 2. general principles for governing international conduct (freedom of the seas, free trade, no secret treaties, reduced armaments, etc.) 3. League of Nations (pg. 604-605)

mandates

an authorization granted by the League of Nations to a member nation to govern a former colony * Wilson wanted independence/self-determination for former colonies * Victorious European powers wanted to add territory/continue colonizing ==> a compromise mandate system of protectorates was established 1. French and British got control of parts of the old German and Turkish empires in Africa and western Asia 2. Japan got control of former German colonies in China (pg. 616)

preparedness

military buildup in preparation for possible U.S. participation in World War I (pg. 599)

U-boats

military submarines operated by Germany * submarine warfare against both neutral and belligerent shipping was used in an effort to break the British blockade (pg. 599-600)

American Expeditionary Force (AEF)

the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in WWI - led by General John J. Pershing - maintained an identity distinct from that of the French and British armies - had a brief but intense combat role (started fighting in early 1918 --> war ended eight months later) - 2 million American men served and 60,000 died in combat * launched the Meuse-Argonne offensive in September 1918 - biggest and costliest American operation of WWI - Germany eventually surrendered because of the huge number of American men and supplies * In 1919, a group of AEF veterans founded the American Legion, "to preserve the memories and incidents of our association in the great war...to consecrate and sanctify our comradeship" --> secondary purpose was to counter radical ideas of socialism/communism among returning veterans (pg. 592, 604)

normalcy

the condition of being normal; the state of being usual, typical, or expected - a central component of Warren G. Harding's presidential campaign - Americans were tired of war, inflation, big government, etc., and wanted to go "back to normal" (pg. 619)

imperialism

the policy and practice of exploiting nations and people for the benefit of an imperial power either directly through military occupation and colonial rule or indirectly through economic domination of resources and markets * characteristic of the old European way -- the U.S. CLAIMED not to be like this (pg. 597)

paternalism

the practice of managing or dealing with other nations in the manner of a father dealing benevolently and often intrusively with his children * this was a characteristic of Wilson's foreign policy -- he thought that the U.S. should use its enormous moral and material power to actively create the new order (for the good of the other countries!) (pg. 597)

self-determination

the right of a people or a nation to decide on its own political allegiance or form of government without external influence = one main idea of Wilson's Fourteen Points (pg. 605)

Article X

the section of the Covenant of the League of Nations that calls for assistance to be given to a member that experiences external aggression "The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members of the League. In case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such aggression the Council shall advise upon the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled." ==> this was the section of the League Covenant that was the most controversial and the primary reason for Republican opposition to joining the League (not in textbook)

neutrality

the state of not helping or supporting either side in a conflict or disagreement; impartiality * after the outbreak of WWI in Europe, President Wilson issued a formal proclamation of neutrality and urged citizens to be "impartial in thought as well as in action" * but in reality, complete neutrality was impossible, BECAUSE: 1. many Americans had ethnic ties to the Old World 2. there were economic ties between the United States and the Allies (Ex: Britain imposed a blockade on Germany --> instead of protesting, the U.S. traded more with Britain and less with Germany) (pg. 598-599)

militarism

the tendency to see military might as the most important and best tool for the expansion of a nation's power and prestige * characteristic of the old European way -- the U.S. CLAIMED not to be like this (pg. 597)